
Book_#££ 



rNIT£D STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

ULLETIN.-1913/nO. 4 - - - - - > WHOLE NUMBER 511 



PRESENT STANDARDS 

OF -HIGHER EDUGATION IN THE 

UNITED STATES 



By GEORGE EDWIN MacLEAN 

FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF THE STATE 
UNiVERSiTY OF IOWA ' 




WASHINCrrON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1913 



i^ono^ph 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

(Titles abridged,) 

1908. 

No. 1. On the training of persons to teach agriculture. L. H. Bailey. 

No. 2. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, 1867-1907. 

No. 3. Bibliography of education for 1907. J. I. Wycr, jr., and Martha I.. PhelpH. 

No. 4. Music education in the United States. Arthur L. Manchester. 

No. 5. Education in Formosa. Julean H. Arnold, American consul at Tamsui. 

No. 6. The apprenticeship system. Carroll D. Wright. 

No. 7. State school systems: October 1, 1906, to October 1, 1908. E. C. Elliott. 

No. 8. Statistics of State universities, etc., 1907-8. 

1909. 

No. 1. Facilities for study and research in Washington. Arthur T. Hadley. 

No. 2, Admission of Chinese students to American imiversities. John Fryer. 

No. 3. Daily meals of school children. Caroline L. Hunt. 

No, 4. The teaching staff of secondary schools. Edward L. Thorndike. 

No. 5. Statistics of public, society, and school libraries in 1908. 

No, 6. Instruction in the fine and manual arts. Henry Turner Bailey. 

No. 7. Index to the Reports of the Commissioner of Education, 1867-1907. 

No. 8. A teacher's professional library. Classified list of 100 titles. 

No. 9. Bibliography of education for 1908-9. 

No. 10. Education for efficiency in railroad service. J. Shirley Eaton. 

No. 11. Statistics of State universities, etc., 1908-9. 

1910. 

Jo. 1. Reform in teaching religion in Saxony. Arley Barthlow Show. 

h. 2. State school systems: October 1, 1908, to October 1, 1909. E. C. Elliott. 

To. 3. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, 1867-1910. 

No. 4. The biological stations of Etu*ope. Charles Atwood Kofoid. 

_No. 5. American schoolhouses. Fletcher.B. Dresslar. 

lo. 6. Statistics of State imiversities, etc., 1909-10. 

1911. 

Bibliography of science teaching. 

Opportunities for graduate study in agricultm-e. A, C. Monahan. 
Agencies for the improvement of teachers in sei-vicf , W. C. Ruediger. 
Report of the commission to study the public schwlb of Baltimore. 
Age and grade census of schools and colleges. George Drayton Strajer. 
Graduate work in mathematics in universities. 
Undergraduate work in mathematics in colleges and imiversities. 
Examinations in mathematics. 

Mathematics in technological schools of collegiate grade. 
). Bibliography of education for 1909-10. 
L. Bibliography of child study for the years 1908-1909. 
No. 12. Training of teachers of elementary and secondary mathematics. 
No. 13. Mathematics in elementary schools. 
No. 14. Provision for exceptional children in the public schools. 
No. 16. The educational system of China as recently reconstructed. H. E. King. 
lo. 16. Mathematics in public and private secondary schools. 

to. 17, List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, October, 1911, 
To. 18. Teachers' certificates (laws and regulations). Harlan Updegraff. 
No. 19. Statistics of State universities, etc., 1910-11. 
Continued on p. 3 of cover. 



UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

BULLETIN. 1913: NO. 4 WHOLE NUMBER 5 11 



PRESENT STANDARDS 

OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE 

UNITED STATES 

By GEORGE EDWIN MacLEAN / ' ^^''^' 

FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF THE STATE 
UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1913 



/ 



rp 



D, OF D. 
MAR 23 1913 



.»4 



^ 



OOKTEKTS. 



Letter of transmittal : 5 

Introduction 7 

Movement for standards 7 

World standards 7 

Standards in colonial colleges 8 

Standards in the first half of the nineteenth century 10 

Standards in the third quarter of the nineteenth century 14 

Standards in the fourth quarter of the nineteenth century IS 

Chapter I. — Present standards of liberal-arts colleges 24 

Entrance requirements 24 

Uniformity 24 

Increase in admission requirements 30 

Admission requirements of representative universities and colleges 31 

Uniformity and units of admission 34 

Methods of admission 36 

I. Prevailing methods of admission to college 36 

II. Rationale of the methods of admission 37 

Scheme of the Iowa State Board of Education 39 

Modifications of the examining and certificate systems of admission 40 

New requirements for admission to Harvard College 42 

The University of Chicago plan 44 

Reqiiirements for graduation of representative institutions 46 

Departments or schools of education in liberal-arts colleges 52 

The qualitative element in standards, distinctions, and grades 53 

Distinctions and marking systems in typical colleges and universities 54 

Defrnitions of a standard college 57 

Simimaiy 65 

Chapter II. — Standards of theological schools 70 

Requirements for admission 71 

Requirements for graduation and degrees 72 

Commission on pre-theological course 73 

Chapter III. — Standards of medical schools 75 

Report of the Council on Medical Education for the year ended June 1, 

1909 77 

State licensing boards 90 

Methods of investigation 92 

Objections to a rigid standard curriculum 95 

Objections to required collegiate preparation 95 

Degrees 96 

Summary 97 

Chapter IV. — Standards of law schools 99 

Requirements for admission 100 

Confederation of State licensing boards 104 

Requirements for graduation 106 

The methods of instruction 107 

Law courses for bachelor's degree 107 

Degrees 108 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Chapter V. — Standards of schools of engineering 109 

Requirements for admission Ill 

Requirements for graduation and degrees 112 

Summary 114 

Chapter VI. — Standards of schools of dentistry 115 

Requirements for admission 118 

Combined courses 119 

Methods of instruction 119 

Requirements for graduation and degrees 120 

Summary 121 

Chapter VII. — Standards of schools of pharmacy 122 

Registration of pharmacy schools 124 

Admission requirements 125 

Requirements for graduation 125 

Combined courses 126 

Degrees 127 

Summary 127 

Chapter VIII. — Standards of schools of fine arts and music 129 

Requirements for graduation 132 

Degrees 133 

Summary 133 

Chapter IX. — Standards of universities 134 

Requirements for admission to graduate work and for advanced degrees. . . 138 

Summary 142 

Appendix A. — Definition of requu'ements by the College Entrance Examina- 
tion Board 143 

Appendix B. — Definitions of unit courses of study and requirements in certain 
subjects by the commission on accredited schools and colleges of the North 

Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools 171 

Appendix C. — Standardizing agencies 185 

Index 187 



LETTEE OF TEAl^SMITTAL. 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Education, 

Washington, December 9, 1912. 

Sir : For many years there has been carried on ui the United States 
by various national and State organizations a vigorous agitation for 
a clearer definition and improvement of standards hi higher and pro- 
fessional education. Committees and commissions have labored and 
reported. Sometimes these reports have been published and given 
wide circulation; in other cases they have been quite inaccessible to 
persons engaged hi the study of educational standards. The need 
for a comprehensive and judicious discussion of the development of 
standards in education has been keenly felt and often expressed by 
individuals, mstitutions, and Hcensing or standardizhig agencies, 
such as State boards of education and of medicine. The history of the 
work of the American Medical Association and of the Carnegie 
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, for example, in elevat- 
ing the standards of medical education is illuminating for all who 
are concerned with the process of bettering educational standards, 
no matter what the particular field of their effort may be. 

Among the organizations laboring for this definition and hiiprove- 
meiit of standards hi large sections of the country or in the whole 
Nation are the National Association of State Universities, the Asso- 
ciation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 
the Association of American Universities, Association of American 
Medical Colleges, the North Central Association of Colleges and 
Secondary Schools (typical of sectional associations), and the National 
Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary 
Schools. In the activities of aU of these Dr. George Edwm MacLean, 
formerly chancellor of the University of Nebraska and for many 
years president of the State University of Iowa, had an important part. 
He has been a leader hi much of the wise and constructive work of 
these bodies, and few men in the country are so weU equipped as he 
by trainmg, experience, insight, and accurate judgment to present 
such a survey as that contained in the manuscript which I am trans- 
mitting. Because it is pertinent to matters now much discussed by 
educational workers, and because it contributes valuable information 
in permanent form for estabhshing a better perspective and for 
mappmg out further progress, I recommend its pubhcation as a bulle- 
tin of this bureau. 

Very respectfully, P. P. Claxton, 

Commissioner. 

The Secretary of the Interior. 

5 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 



INTRODUCTION. 

MOVEMENT FOR STANDARDS. 

The battle of standards is perennial. We have thought it char- 
acteristic of our age. The moment, however, whether in matters 
mechanical or spiritual, when the thing passes from the individualistic 
to the social stage and a certain degree of development is reached, 
standards are precipitated. In all religions, creed and orthodoxy 
mean standards. In philosophies, principles and systems mean 
standards. In government, fundamental laws and codes are estab- 
lished standards. In higher education, whose watchword is "free- 
dom of thought, of teaching, of learnmg, and of administration," 
when it crystallizes in institutions, standards to be used and not to 
be abused become a necessity. 

Our age makes standards imperative. Tlie oneness of modern civili- 
zation brought about by invention, by commerce, and Christianity 
has accomphshed the beginnings of the realization of a Repubhc of 
Letters, if not of the federation of the world. Mechanical standards 
must be international. A standard gauge for railway tracks had to 
come. A common monetary basis had to be found. Naturally, 
apphed education in the professions made the first demand for 
standardization. Systems of theology, international law, medicine 
as the science of physiology and psychology apphed to the preven- 
tion and cure of disease, and aU the applied sciences ranging the 
globe around are driven to standardize. The world-wide inter- 
change of thought, exchange of scholars, and migration of students, 
last of aU, bring the institutions of higher learning to call for recog- 
nized standards. 

WORLD STANDARDS. 

Dr. Elmer E. Brown, former United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, well anticipates the "world movement" in standards in the 
Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1908 (p. 10): 

One can not permit the educational standing of one's own institution or State or 
Nation to be left in question before the rest of the world, and if it is not what it should 
be to command the respect of the world, it must be improved without delay. In its 

7 



8 ' PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

highest form this sentiment would go further, and demand that our institution or 
State or Nation shall have such undoubted educational standing as shall enable it to 
do its part in determining the world standard in education, for there can be no doubt 
that we are to have a world standard and that it is already taking shape. This stand- 
ardizing movement is no more inevitable than is the reaction against it. * * * In 
the American contribution to the world standard there shall be insistence upon free- 
dom for such variability as would assure to a people universal opportunity in the 
present and unlimited progress in the future. But with this position fully secured 
the need for defined standards remains. It is at bottom the permanent need of 
scholastic honesty. The standardizing movement in our education is the pure-food 
movement in our spiritual world. It is necessary indeed to the soundness of our 
educational freedom and experimentation. 

In pursuance of this policy, Commissioner Brown in his report for 
1910 (Vol. I, pp. 1-11) sets forth a national programme of education, 
and tells of the inauguration within the Bureau of Education of the 
work of specialists in school administration, in higher education, and 
in land-grant colleges. His views of a world standard, elaborated 
in his address "American Standards in Education and the World 
Standards" (Science, new series No. 30, pp. 417-27), are an initial 
classic upon the subject. 

The import of standards and the advance of them in higher educa- 
tion will appear from a reference to some periods in the history of 
standards in certain typical colleges. 

STANDARDS IN COLONIAL COLLEGES. 

They were derived directly from England, as the history of Harvard 
shows. President Everett said : 

The course of studies, limited, it must be owned, was copied we have reason to 
think from that which was pursued at the time in the parent country; and the literary 
honors of the newly established institution were declared to be conferred Pro more 
Academiarum Anglicarwn. (Addresses at Inauguration of the Hon. Edward Everett, 
LL.D., April 30, 1846.) 

The first entrance requirements of the freshman class at Harvard 
are gathered from the laws passed in President Dunster's time 
(1642-1646). They read: 

When any scholar is able to read Tully or such like classical Latin author ex tempore 
and make a speech from Latin, in verse and prose suo {ut aiunt) Marte (as they say, 
by his own exertions), and decline a number of paradigms of nouns and verbs in the 
Greek tongue, then may he be admitted into the college, nor shall any claim admission 
before such qualifications. (Historical sketch of Harvard University, by Wm. R. 
Thayer, Cambridge, 1890, p. 31.) 

The curriculum was as follows: 

The first year. — Logic, physics, etymology, syntax, and practice of 
the principles of grammar. 

The second year. — Ethics, politics, prosody and dialects, practice of 
poetry, and Chaldee. 



INTEODUCTION. 9 

The third year. — Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, exercises in 
style, composition, epitome, both prose and verse, Hebrew and 
Syriac. 

In every year and every week of the college course every class was practiced in the 
Bible and catechetical divinity, also in history in the winter, and nature of plants in 
the summer. Rhetoric was gotten by lectures in every year, each student required 
to declaim once a month. The scholars read the Scriptures twice a day; had to 
write or epitomize the Sunday sermon, and were frequently examined as to their own 
religious state. 

Dating from President Dunster's administration was the regula- 
tion : 

The scholars shall never use their mother tongue except that in public exercises of 
oratory or such like they be called to make them in English. * * * They that 
expect to proceed Bachelors that year be examined of their sufficiency according to 
the laws of the college; and such as expect to proceed M. A. to exhibit their synopsis 
of acts required by the laws of the college. (Ibid.) 

The requirements for graduation by the same regulation were: 

Every scholar that on proof is found able to read the original of the Old and New 
Testament into Latin and resolve them logically, withal being of honest life and 
conversation, and at any public act hath the approbation of the Overseers and Masters 
of the college, may be invested with his first degree. (Ibid., p. 32.) 

The undergraduate three years' course was extended to four years 
in 1654. The general nature of the college curriculum remained 
unchanged during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. 
In 1726 a report of Tutors Flint, Welsteed, and Prince gives us the 
subjects studied, and the textbooks and the program (p. 32). 

(1) While the students are freshmen they commonly recite the grammars (Greek and 
Latin) and with these a recitation in Tully, Virgil, and Greek Testament on Monday, 
Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday in the morning and forenoon; on Friday morn- 
ing Dugard's or Fornaby's Rhetoric, and on Saturday morning Greek, and towards 
the end of the year they dispute on Raum's Definitions, Monday and Tuesday fore- 
noons. 

(2) Sophomores recite Burgersdicius's Logic and a Ms. called New Logic in the 
mornings and forenoons; and toward the latter end of the year Heereboord 's Meletemata 
and dispute Monday and Tuesday in forenoon. Continue also to recite the classic 
authors with Logic and Philosophy; on Saturday mornings they recite WoUebius's 
Divinity. 

(3) The junior Sophisters recite Heereboord 's Meletemata, Mr. Norton's Physics, 
Moore's Ethics, Geography, Metaphysics, in the mornings and forenoons, Wollebius 
on Saturday morning, and dispute Mondays and Tuesdays in the forenoon. 

(4) Senior Sophisters besides Arithmetic recite AUsted's Geometry, Gassendus's 
Astronomy in the morning; go over the arts toward the latter end of the year, Ames's 
Medulla on Saturdays, and dispute once a week. 

Harvard represents in all essential particulars the standards of 
all the Colonial colleges. 



10 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

STANDARDS IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

Material changes from the almost stationary standards of the 
Colonial colleges appear in the first half of the mneteenth century. 
Entrance examinations continued as the method of admission, but 
they were mostly oral, and were neither ''searching nor extensive." * 

As the practice of speaking Latin fell into desuetude the amount of Latin and 
Greek required to be read was greatly increased, and examinations became more 
thorough and rigorous. Mathematics was first made a requisite for admission in 1803, 
and then only so much as related to the rudiments of arithmetic. Geography was 
added in 1807. In 1816 an examination was required in the whole of arithmetic, 
and to this was added in 1819 a trifling amount of algebra. Caesar was first required 
for admission in 1836-37. From that year until 1866-67 there were only very slight 
changes in the requisitions for admission to Harvard. (Ibid.) 

The continuance of the terms for admission of the Colonial col- 
leges, with a noteworthy sign of oncoming changes in offering an 
option for Greek, appears in the action of the board of trustees in 
1793 in openmg WilHams College. The act reads: 

That each person who applies for admission be able to accurately read and parse 
and construe to the satisfaction of the president and tutor Virgil's ^neid, Tully's 
Orations, and the Evangelists in Greek. Or if he prefers, to read and pronounce 
with a tolerable degree of accuracy Hudson's French Scholar's Guide, Telemachus, 
or some other approved French author. (History of Williams College, by Calvin 
Durfee, Boston, 1860, p. 66.) 

The laws adopted by the trustees required the followmg courses 
of study "so far as it may be convenient:" 

The first year. — Enghsh, Latm, Greek, and French languages. 

The second year. — The several languages in part, arithmetic, 
geography, algebra, geometry, mensurations, conic sections, rhetoric, 
and logic. 

The third year. — Trigonometiy, navigation survey, natural philos- 
ophy, astronomy, and chemistry. 

The fourth year. — Metaphysics, ethics, history, natural law, civil 
poHty, and theology. (Durfee, pp. 354, 355.) 

Almost as much Greek and Latin is now (1860) required for admission as was formerly 
required for graduation. Geography, English grammar, and arithmetic formed a part 
of the early college course. Geography was dropped in 1831, arithmetic in 1837, 
and English grammar in 1839. (Durfee, p. 355.) 

The natural sciences received but little attention at Williams 
College previous to 1816. Prior to 1812 the college had but little 
philosophical and no chemical apparatus. Prof. Silliman earlier at 
Yale had developed laboratory instruction in chemistry. Prof. 
Chester Dewey, of WiUiams, was given a leave of absence to take a 
short course under Prof. Silhman. (Durfee, pp. 357-358.) In 1816-17 

1 Hist, of Higher Educ. in Mass., by tleorge Gary Bush, Ph. D., Bu. of Educ. Cir. Inf. No. 6, 1891; Contri- 
bution to Amer. Educ. Hist., H. B. Adams, 13, Gov. Pr. Office, 1891, p. 151. 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

Prof. Dewey began to teach botany, mineralogy, and geology in 
connection with chemistry. (Ibid., p. 372.) In 1817 lectures on 
mineralogy, geology, and botany were given by Amos Eaton to such 
members of the coUege as chose to attend. (Ibid., pp. 358-360.) 
Prof. Eaton was among the first in this country to study nature in the 
field with his classes. He prepared the way for geological surveys. 
His zeal for popular knowledge as an "itinerating lecturer," organiz- 
ing classes in several of the larger towns in New England and New 
York, gives us an anticipation of university extension. Following 
Dewey and Eaton, Prof. Albert Hopkins, among the first in the 
United States, maugurated as early as 1835 scientific expeditions 
(p. 376). 

The fundamental idea of the curriculum of the standard coUege in 
the first half of the nineteenth century, accentuated by President 
Mark Hopkins's individuality, is nowhere better stated than in his 
alumni address m 1843. He says: 

' An indigenous idea here, as it must have been elsewhere, which we have of late 
attempted to realize is that of making the college studies have the impression and 
effect of a system on the mind of the student. Leaving the power of expression, 
whether by writing or speaking, out of the question, we divide our course into the 
languages and mathematics, physical science, and man as he is in himself, and in his 
relations to his fellow creatures, and to God, pursuing mathematics and languages in 
the usual way, also physical sciences, that it be first physical man and endeavor to 
give an idea of every organ and tissue of the body. We then take the intellectual 
man and investigate first and classify his several faculties; then the grounds of belief 
and the processes of the mind in the pursuit of truth, with an explanation of the 
inductive and deductive logic, then the moral nature, together with individual and 
political morality, comprising a knowledge of constitutional history and of the rights 
and duties of American citizens; then the emotional nature as it is and the principles 
of fine arts, then natural theology and the analogy of the natural and the moral govern- 
ment of God. (Alumni address by Mark Hopkins, D. D., Boston, Aug. 16, 1843, 
president of the college (Williams), pp. 31-32.) 

The progress of standards m the colleges in this period is referred 
to by William CuUen Bryant in a letter of his m 1859, in which he says : 

The standard of scholarship in Williams College at that time [1810, when he entered] 
was so far below what it now is that I think many graduates of those days would be 
no more than prepared for admission as freshm^en now. 

The diversity of standards in the colleges at this time, accordmg 
to popular estimation, is shown by his letter. He speaks of students 
beiag dropped from Williams and as admitted to Union. He was 
one of those not satisfied with the degree of scholarship attained at 
Williams, and he himself at the end of the sophomore year obtained 
an honorable dismissal with the mtention of gomg to Yale. (Durfee, 
p. 108.) 

Signs were not lacking of the on-coming m the second half of the 
century of the battle concerning the elective system m place of the 
required system that had prevailed. The prominent causes were 



12 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHEE EDUCATION. 

the increase of students who were not preparmg for the ministry, 
the prevalence of the post-Revolutionary American spirit, and the 
development of the natural and applied sciences. At Harvard m 
1824 all studies were required, except that instructors might ''choose 
as a substitute for 38 lessons in Hebrew and Syriac between chemistry 
and fluxions. French and Spanish being extra, attendance upon 
them was voluntary." By the revised statutes in 1826 — 

a student could attend any modern language for the first third of the freshman year in 
place of certain specified courses in Greek, Latin, topography, Hebrew, and natural 
science, and a senior might also substitute natural philosophy for a part of intellectual 
philosophy. 

In practice the one development in which an elective system was 
fairly tried was in the French and Spanish languages and literature, 
then under the charge of Prof. George Ticknor. (Thayer, p. 34.) 

The foUowuig scheme, adopted in the year 1841, shows the extent 
of the elective system (p. 35) : 

First year. 

Prescribed: Mathematics, Greek, Latin, history. 
Elective: None. 
Sophomore year. 

Prescribed: English, grammar and composition, rhetoric and declamation, one 

modern language, history. 
Elective: Mathematics, Greek, Latin, natural history, history, chemistry, geology, 
geography, use of globes, and any modern language, so far as taught 
in the university. 
Junior year. 
Prescribed: English composition, one modern language, logic, declamation, physics, 

psychalogy, ethics, forensics, history. 
Elective: Same as sophomore year and a more extended covn-se in psychology and 
ethics. 
Senior year. 

Prescribed: Khetoric, English composition, political economy, constitutional law, 

forensics, theology, history, declamation. 
Elective: Political ethics, more extended course in physics and any of the elective 
studies above enumerated . 

At Yale under the elder President Dwight the new learning, that 
is, the recognition of English literature as a classic side by side with 
the Greek and Latin classics, was a departure that caused much 
comment. The standard required curriculum with the shghtest 
possible recognition of options for the period may well be represented 
by the course of instruction in the catalogue of Yale for 1822. The 
four years' course is divided each year into three terms, or sessions. 



INTEODUCTION. 

FRESHMAN CLASS. 



18 



First term. 


Second term. 


Third term. 


Livy. 

Adams' Rorase Antiq. 
Mebbus' Arithmetic, revised. 
Murray's Englisli Grammar. 


Grseca Majora, historical parts. 
Day's Algebra. 


Grseca Majora, eont. 
Morse's Geography, begun. 
Murray's Grammar, reviewed. 



SOPHOMORE CLASS. 



Morse's Geography, cont. 
Playfair's Euclid, begun. 
Horace, begun. 



Euclid, finished. 
Horace, finished. 
Day's Mathematics, Pts. II 

III. 
Cicero de OfBciis, begun. 



Homer's Iliad. 

Day's Mathematics, Pt. IV. 

Conic sections and spherical 

geometry. 
Jamison's Rhetoric. 
Cicero de Officiis, De Senectute, 

and De Amicitia. 



JUNIOR CLASS. 



Spherical trigonometry. 
Graeca Majora, cont. 
Enfield's Philosophy, begim. 
Cicero Oratore, begun. 



Graeca Majora, Vol. I, finished. 
Enfield's Philosophy, cont. 
Cicero Oratore, cont. 
Tacitus, omit Aimals. 



Enfield's Astronomy. 
Tyler's History. 

Fluxions, Greek, or Hebrew, at 
option. 



SENIOR CLASS. 



Blair's Rhetoric. 
Hedge's Logic. 
Locke's Essays. 



Paley's Natural Theology. 
Stuart's Philosophy of Mind. 



Paley's Moral Philosophy. 
Paley's Evidences of Christianity. 



Yale has been the steady protagonist for a prescribed curriciiluni, 
as Harvard has been the leader in experiments with the elective 
system. The rise, progress, and decline of the first notable experi- 
ment in the elective system began in 1824 and closed with the first 
half of the century, and is well summarized by Bush (p. 167). 

To Prof. George Ticknor who occupied the new chair of modem languages from 1816 
to 1835, and to Judge Story, the honor is principally due for the inauguration of the 
elective system. In the years 1825-26 and 1826-27 a new arrangement of studies was 
effected by which three hours a week throughout the course, with the exception of 
the first and third of the freshman year, was given to elective studies. These hours 
could be devoted in the freshman year to Greek, Latin, and modem languages; in the 
sophomore year to Greek, Latin, mathematics, and modem languages; in the junior 
year to Greek, Latin, mathematics, modem languages, and Hebrew; in the senior year 
to Greek, Latin, mathematics, modem languages, chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. 

In 1830, in order to secure "a more thorough education in Greek and Latin, mathe- 
matics, and rhetoric," the study of modern languages was postponed till the beginning 
of the sophomore year. 

By a regulation adopted in 1838, mathematics ceased to be a required study after 
the freshman year, and the standard of scholarship was believed to have been so 
greatly elevated in this department by the introduction of the new system of electives 
that in 1843 the experiment was extended to Greek and Latin. Dm-ing the four years 
from 1843-44 to 1847 the sophomores had 5 hours of required work in rhetoric, history, 
and philosophy; the jimiors 6 hotirs required in philosophy, physics, and logic; 
the seniors 8 hours of required Avork in ethics, physics, rhetoric, political economy, 
and the Constitution of the United States. 



14 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

All the remaining hours of required work were given to elective studies. [Therefore 
by 1850 the elective system had reached a high stage of development, with reaction.] 
Tn President Everett's report for the year 1847-48 we find that "during the year all the 
studies of freshman and sophomore years, including mathematics and French, were 
required studies. This change was the result of a compromise of the opposite views 
prevailing in the faculty on the general question of the expediency of continuing 
required and elective studies in a system of collegiate education. 

In 1849-50 the ancient order of things hiad been so far restored that, with the excep- 
tion of one elective of 3 hours in the junior and senior years, all the studies were 
required. President Sparks, in his report for that year, uses the following language: 
"This system (elective) was attractive in theorjr, but in framing it the consideration 
was not sufficiently weighed that what was gained in one study was necessarily lost 
in another. The system was subjected, however, to a fair and patient trial. Tn prac- 
tice it never fulfilled all the expectations of its framers, and it soon began to fall into 
partial disfavor." 

Again, in his report for 1851-52, he remarks: " The voluntary system, as it is called, 
is still retained to a certain extent, rather from necessity than preference." 

At the moment of the downfall of the elective system at Harvard, 
as will be seen in the section upon the third quarter of the nineteenth 
century, Brown University took it up in a radical form. 

Reference to the appropriate later chapters of this bulletin will 
show that this was the period of the organization and segregation 
of the professional and technical schools and the setting up more 
distinctly of their standards. 

STANDARDS IN THE THIRD QUARTER OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

This is a markedly transitional period, making stationary the 
advances of the first half century, but preparatory to the practically 
revolutionary period of the last quarter of the century. The require- 
ments for admission were essentially stationary, as a comparison of 
the terms of admission to Williams College in 1850 and 1875 will 
show. In 1850 candidates for admission to the freshman class were 
examined in geography, vulgar arithmetic, and algebra through 
simple equations; in English, Latin, and Greek grammar (including 
prosody, the Latin grammar of Andrews and Stoddard, and the Greek 
grammars of Sophocles or Crosby were used) ; in Cicero's selected 
orations, the whole of Virgil, Caesar's Commentaries, or Sallust; 
Jacob's, Colton's or Felton's Greek Reader, and in the Greek 
Testament. 

In 1875-76 the requirements were the same with the exception of 
the addition of the outlines of Greek and Roman history, two books 
of geometry, Arnold's prose composition as far as the passive voice. 
The Greek and Latin requirements were made more specific, evidently 
in the interest of more intensive work. Seven instead of all of 
Cicero's selected orations, the Georgics, and six books of the ^neid 
instead of the whole of Virgil; four books of Caesar's Commentaries 
in place of Caesar's Commentaries or Sallust. The Greek require- 



INTKODUCTION. 



15 



ment is increased as specifying four books of Xenophon's Anabasis, 
and one book of Homer's Iliad, with an option in place of the four 
books of Anabasis of 120 pages of Goodwin's Greek Reader. The 
Greek Testament is omitted. The "continental" method of pro- 
nunciation of Greek and of Latin has been introduced. 

As from the beginning, testimonials of good moral character for 
admission are required, and matriculation still means something, the 
catalogue reading : 

A probation of six months before the students are matriculated is required, during 
which time they are subject to all the laws and regulations of the college. 

A somewhat new refrain still sung to this very day in all the 
colleges is found in the sentiments^ — 

many who applied for admission are imperfectly prepared in the English studies, 
particularly in arithmetic and geography. As these studies are not pursued in college, 
it is necessary that the preparation of them should be full and thorough. (Catalogue 
of 1850.) 

From 1847 to 1867 the elective system was m abeyance in Harvard, 
and in 1856 the mstitution made the three-hour courses in Latin 
and Greek, formerly elective, required studies in the junior year. 
But growing interest in the study of philology, philosophy, history, 
and above all in physical and natural sciences, compelled the college 
to make a second trial of the elective system. Such changes were 
made in 1867, equaling the elective system as it existed in 1843 to 
1847. (Bush, p. 168.) The standard college curriculum of this 
whole period was in the main required, and is well represented by 
the course of instruction in the Williams College catalogue for 
1850-51. 

Course of Instruction. 



FRESHMAN CLASS.i 



First term. 


Second term. 


Third term. 


Combe on Health and mental 
education. 

Odes of Horace. 

Xenophon's Memorabilia (Rob- 
bins' edition). 

Algebra. 

Arnold's Latin prose composition. 


Livy. 

Homer's Iliad. 
Euclid, 4 books. 


Livy, continued. Cicero de Sen- 

ectute. 
Herodotus and Thucydides. 
Algebra, concluded. 
Latin composition, continued. 



SOPHOMORE CLASS.2 



Horace, satires and epistles. 

Euclid finished. 

Logarithms and trigonometry. 

Cice_ro de OtHciis. 

Rhetoric. 

Latin composition, continued. 



Euclid reviewed. 

Hedge's Logic. 

Mensuration, navigation, and 

surveying. 
Woolsey's Greek tragedies. 



Spherical trigonometry. 
Coffin's Conic sections and analyti- 
cal geometry. 
History. 
Plato's Georgics. 



1 Declamations and translations are required daily throughout the year. Greek and Roman antiquities 
are studied in connection with the languages throughout the course, and the following books are recom- 
mended for reference: Adams' Roman Antiquities, Butler's Atlas Classica, Anthon's Classical Dictionary, 
Eschenburg's Manual, Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 

» Translations, declamations, and compositions daily throughout the year. 



16 



PKESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 



Course of Instruction — Continued. 
JUNIOR CLASS.i 



First term. 


Second term. 


Third term. 


Wayland's Political economy. 
Demosthenes' select orations, 

Champlin's edition. 
OLmstead's Natural philosophy. 
Hopkins' Evidences of revealed 

rehgion. 
Quintillian begun. 


QuintiUian, continued. 

Tacitus. 

Olmstead, continued. 

Botany. 


Chemistry. 

Astronomy. 

Fluxions, French or German, at 
the option of the student. 

Compositions on philosophical sub- 
jects. 



SENIOR CLASS.' 



Campbell's Philosophy of rheto- 
ric. 

Anatomy and zoology. 

Stewart's Elements of intellectual 
philosophy. 



Wayland's Elements of moral 

science. 
Story on the constitution. 
Paley's Political yihilosophy. 
Kames' Elements of criticism. 



Kames, continued. 
Butler's Analogy. , 
Paley's Natural philosophy. 



1 Disputations and themes alternately, by divisions, weekly, during the first and second terms. Dec- 
lamations daily throughout the year. 

2 Vincent on the catechism every Saturday forenoon. A critical exercise in composition every Friday 
forenoon. Disputations or compositions weekly by divisions. Declamations of their own compositions 
weekly in the chapel during the first and second terms. 

This quarter century is the one of transition from textbook methods 
of instruction to what is in the next period known as the laboratory 
method. The Wilhams catalogue of 1875 has a section picturing this 
transition. It is entitled ''Instruction." 

For the arrangement of the several branches of instruction, and for the time devoted 
to each branch, we refer to the Order of studies subjoined. 

While instruction is chiefly given in connection with textbooks which afford the 
easiest and most certain means of acquisition to immature minds, the textbooks are 
supplemented by lectures and the student is made to feel, in a more immediate way, 
the influence of the instructor. The examinations on all points presented by lec- 
tures are as full and critical as upon those learned from textbooks. 

Each department is provided fully with those accessories which aid in making 
knowledge complete, vivid, and practical. Historical and classical subjects are 
illustrated by maps, models, and photographs. Mathematics is applied by the use 
of instruments in the field. Anatomy and physiology are taught by means of the 
manikin, skeleton, and anatomical preparations. Even the abstract subjects of 
mental and moral science have been found capable of receiving additional clearness 
and enforcement by use of the blackboard. 

In the languages opportunity was afforded to those who wished to 
pursue their studies beyond a regular course. In rhetoric and elocu- 
tion written and vocal exercises supplemented the textbooks and 
lectures, and private criticism was given. In physics it was believed 
that with its apparatus and other equipment the department was in 
a favorable condition to satisfy all the growing demands of this 
important science. In chemistry, instruction was conducted with full 
experiments, and in astronomy the study of the textbook was accom- 
panied by lectures, by practical illustrations in the observation, and 
by instruction in the use of instruments. In natural history and 
geology much was made of the cabinet, herbarium, and collections. 



INTEODUCTIOlNr. 17 

During this time the examination system was made more thorough. 
The predominance of oral examinations had given way to that of 
written examinations, and the biennials and quadrennials to annuals. 
The WilUams catalogue for 1875-76 reads: 

Examinations of all classes are held before the close of each term on the studies of 
that term, and before the close of the third term of each year there is an examination 
in writing upon all the studies of that year. 

Brown University carried forward the radical movement from 
which Harvard fell back, and led the preparatory movement for the 
changes with reference to electives, and realized a curriculum of 
three or four years and multiplication of degrees.^ 

The regular degrees confeiTed in the university shall be bachelor of arts, bachelor 
of philosophy, and master of arts. 

The degree of bachelor of arts is designed especially for those who wish the different 
professions and yet from circumstances are unable to pursue a complete course of 
liberal education. In order to render it open to such students, the number of studies 
is limited, and a large liberty of choice granted that they may be enabled to select 
such studies as will better enable them to prepare themselves for a particular pro- 
fession. 

The candidate may have been proficient in: 

1. Two ancient languages for two years, mathematics, English literature, and two 
other courses of one year. 

2. One ancient language for two years, two modern languages, mathematics for two 
years, English literature, and two other courses of one year. 

3. One ancient language for two years, mathematics for one year, one modern lan- 
guage, English literature, and fom* other courses of one year. 

The degree of bachelor in philosophy is designed for students intended for pursuits 
of active life. The corporation wishes to make the requirement for getting it such as 
will confer a high degree of intellectual culture without the necessity of studying 
ancient languages. For this degree the candidate must be proficient in two modern 
languages, the mathematics of two years, English literature, and three other courses 
of one year each. Natural philosophy may in this degree be substituted for the 
mathematics of the second year. 

A student who attends two years for each course of science applied to the arts, or 
chemistry applied to arts, or agriculture, and in either of them obtains a testimonial 
of proficiency may be a candidate for the degree of bachelor of philosophy, by obtain- 
ing testimonials of proficiency in one modern language, the course of English literature, 
and three other courses of one year each. 

The degree of master of arts is intended for students who desire a full course of 
liberal education. To become a candidate for this degree one must obtain certifi- 
cates of proficiency in the courses of ancient languages for two years, modem languages 
for one year, mathematics for two years, natural philosophy, English language and 
rhetoric, chemistry and physiology, history and political economy, intellectual and 
moral philosophy. 

He must be also examined in the ancient languages, in natural philosophy, and in 
three other studies of one course, to be selected by the faculty; and he shall not be 
entitled to a degree unless his answers attain to 25 per cent of the maximum estab- 
lished by the faculty. 

1 Laws of Brown University, enacted Aug. 1, 1850, p. 17; summarized from text, with omissions. 
62400°— 13 2 



18 PEESENT STANDAKDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

The candidate for this degree may be allowed to substitute a third year in an ancient 
language for a second in mathematics, or a third year in mathematics for a second in 
an ancient language, or to substitute one modern language for a year in an ancient 
language, or for a year in mathematics. 

It is the design of the corporation to require for the degrees of bachelor of arts and 
bachelor of philosophy an amount of study which may be accomplished in three years, 
but which mmj, if he pleases, occupy four years and to require for the degree of master 
of arts an amount of study which may be done in four years, but which, if generously 
pursued, may occupy him to advantage much longer. 

At the close of this period conservative colleges like Princeton and 
Yale had yielded somewhat to the elective system in the upper 
classes, but with solemn safeguards, as the catalogue of the College 
of New Jersey, 1874-75 (p. 23), will show: 

During the last two years of the course students have an opportunity of selecting 
to a certain extent the studies which they will pursue. These electives, chosen at 
the beginning of the college year, and for the entire year, will, when chosen, be 
equally obligatory with the required studies. 

On the second day of the first term, at 12 o'clock noon, the members of the junior 
and senior classes meet in the chapel to declare in writing their choice of elective 
studies and to be enrolled in the several departments. 

Qualitative standards were cherished, although that equaUty of 
departments had been attained (ibid., p. 24) which had been earlier 
denied to the newer studies in comparison with the ancient or primary 
departments like Greek and Latin. The Princeton catalogue men- 
tions the examinations in the several departments as — 

counted of equal value on the scale of grades. In computing the final grade of a 
student his average grades of former years are combined with those of his final 
examinations. 

Students whose final grade is above half of the maximum are ordi- 
narily recommended by the faculty for degrees. 

Students who stand high in the class, in addition to their degrees, may also receive 
by vote of the faculty Commencement orations indicative of general or special excel- 
lence. * * * Philosophical, classical, physical, metaphysical, ethical, historical, 
literary, belles-lettres, French and German orations are awarded to students eminent 
respectively in the corresponding departments. In awarding all literary honors and 
distinctions, regard is had by the faculty to moral conduct of the candidates. 

The master's degree, however, was practically universally conferred 
in course, as at Princeton (ibid., 24), on "every B. A. of three years 
standing who in the interval had sustained a good moral character 
and pursued professional or other studies," and who had made appli- 
cation for the degree. 

STANDARDS IN THE FOURTH QUARTER OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

This is a period of such rapid evolution as to be almost revolu- 
tionary. It is the time of the appearance of genuine universities 
and of the confusion of collegiate standards by university notions. 
The standards of admission and scholarship become very stiff and 



INTKODUCTION. 19 

tend to be mechanical. The elective system prevails in many places 
in extreme forms. In a broad way it may be said that the college 
graduate of the middle of the century would not rank more than one 
entering the junior year in 1900. In other words, standards of 
admission and graduation have been advanced by two years. The 
great protagonist of the elective system was President Charles W. 
Eliot, the system marking great advances with reference to admission 
and graduation requirements and methods of instruction. The new 
admission requirements in English, adopted by Harvard in 1874, 
prescribing certain texts with reference to studies in composition 
and literature, were adopted by all the New England colleges, and by 
1900, through the influence of various associations, by the leading 
colleges of the country. 

The history of the entrance requirements during the 40 years pre- 
ceding 1877 is discussed in President Eliot's report for the latter 
year. At Harvard in 1880, to obtain admission to the college, the 
candidate had prescribed for him "a minimum requisition in every 
study and a maximum requisition in two selected by him from four 
principal studies." In till, he was required to pass a satisfactory 
examination in 11 studies. 

Examinations in French and German were adopted at Harvard 
in 1875, and in 1877 they were put among the advanced subjects on 
an equal footing with Latin, Greek, and mathematics. (Bush, p. 152.) 

President Eliot's inaugural^ has become a classic with reference to 
the methods of teaching, educational value of studies, terms of 
admission, the elective system, and standards of secondary schools 
and colleges. 

The best result of the discussion which has raged so long about the relative edu- 
cational value of the main branches of learning is the conviction that there is room for 
all in a sound scheme, provided that right methods of teaching be employed. It is 
not because of the limitation of their faculties that boys of 18 come to college having 
mastered nothing but a few score pages of Latin and Greek and bare elements of 
mathematics. Not nature, but an unintelligent system of instruction from the 
primary schools through the college, is responsible for the fact that many college 
graduates have so inadequate a conception of what is meant by scientific observation, 
reasoning, and proof. It is possible for the young to get actual experience of all the 
principal methods of thought. There is a method of thought in language, and a 
method in mathematics, and another of natural and physical science, and another 
of faith. The actual problem to be solved is not what but hoiu to teach * * *. 
(P-31.) 

A^Ttiatever elementary instruction the school fails to give, the college must supply. 
The improvement of the schools has of late permitted the college to advance the grade 
of its teaching and adapt the method of its later years to men instead of boys. This 
improvement of the college reacts upon the schools to their advantage, and this action 
and reaction will be continuous * * *. (P. 32.) 

Such inducements as the college can offer for emiching and enlarging the course 
of study pursued in preparatory schools the faculty has decided to give. The require- 

1 Address at the inauguration of President Eliot, 1869. 



20 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

ments in Latin and Greek grammar are to be set at a thorough knowledge of forms 
and general principles; the lists of classical authors accepted as equivalents for the 
regular standards are to be enlarged; an acquaintance with physical geography 
is to be required; study of elementary mechanics is to be recommended, and prizes 
to be offered for reading aloud and for the critical analysis of passages from English 
authors. At the same time the university -will take to heart the counsel which it 
gives to others. (P. 33.) 

The increasing weight, range, and thoroughness of the examinations for admission 
to the college may strike some observers with dismay. The increase of real requisi- 
tions is hardly perceptible from year to year, but on looking back 10 or 20 years the 
changes are marked, and all in one direction * * *. (P. 36.) 

When the gradual improvement of American schools has lifted them to a level with 
the German gymnasia, we may expect to see the American college bearing nearer 
resemblance to the German faculties of philosophy than now. The actual admission 
examinations may best be compared with the first examination of the University of 
Fi-ance. This examination, which comes at the end of the French boy's school life, 
is for the degree of bachelor of arts or science. The degree is given to young men 
who come fresh from school, and have never been under university teachers; a large 
part of them never enter the university. Our young men who come to our examina- 
tions for admission to college are older than the average of French bachelors of arts. 
The examination tests not only gauge the capacity of the candidates, but also the 
quality of their school instruction; it is a great event in their lives, though not as in 
France marked by any degree. (P. 36.) 

The examination is conducted by college professors and tutors who never bad any 
relations with those examined. It would be a great gain if later college examinations 
could be as impartially conducted by competent examiners brought from without 
the college and paid for the service. If the examinations for the sciences, theology, 
medicine, and dental degrees were conducted by independent boards of examiners, 
appointed by professional bodies of dignity and influence, the significance of the degrees 
would be greatly enhanced. The same might be said of the degree of bachelor of laws, 
if it were not that this degree is at present earned by attendance alone and not by 
attendance and examination * * *. (P. 37.) 

Only a few years ago all students who graduated at tliis college passed through one 
uniform ciUTiculum. Every man took the same subjects in the same proportions, 
without regard to his natural bent or preference. The student had no choice either 
oi subject or teacher. This is still the prevailing system in American colleges, and 
has vigorous defenders. It has the merit of simplicity. So had the school methods 
of our grandfathers — one primer, one catechism, one rod for all children. On the 
whole, a single course of studies, well selected for the average needs, seems to most 
Americans a very proper and natural thing even for grown men. (P. 39.) 

These principles are the justification of the system of elective studies which has 
been gradually developed in this college in the last 20 years. At present the fresh- 
man year is the only one in which there is a fixed course prescribed for all. In the 
other 3 years more than half the time is filled with subjects chosen by each student 
from lists which comprise 6 studies in the sophomore year, 9 in the junior year, and 11 
in the senior year. The range of electives is large, though there are some striking 
deficiencies. The liberty of choice of subjects is wide, but yet has very rigid limits. 
There is a certain framework which must be filled, and about one-half the material of 
the filling is prescribed. The choice offered to students does not lie between liberal 
studies and professional or utilitarian studies. All the studies which are open to him 
are liberal and disciplinary, not narrow or special. Under this system the college 
does not demand, it is true, only an invariable set of studies of every candidate for 
his first degree in arts, but its requisitions for this degree are nevertheless high and 
inflexible, being notliing less than four years devoted to liberal culture. (Pp. 40, 41.) 



INTEODUCTION. 21 

Despite the vigorous leadership of President EHot, it took 17 years 
to accompHsh the uncertain adoption of the elective system. Its privi- 
leges were handed down from class to class till at last they reached the 
freshmen. (Thayer, p. 24.) At length even they were extended, mth 
limitations, to the high schools. In May, 1886, the struggle which was 
still going on in the college "between the Harvard of conservative 
progress and the Harvard of radical reaction" culminated in victory 
for the latter. The nature of the struggle and the alarm which it cre- 
ated among the constituents of the New England Association of 
Colleges can be best understood by reference to the paper signed by 
the presidents of Yale, Brown, Dartmouth, WiUiams, Amherst, Trin- 
ity, Wesleyan, and Boston Universities, and presented to the over- 
seers of Harvard University. It was as f oUows : 

To the Honorable and Reverend 

The Overseers of Harvard College: 

Whereas it appears from the public prints that your honorable body is soon to be 
called upon to consider a proposition so to modify the conditions of admission to Har- 
vard College, and of promotion to the degree of bachelor of arts, that this degree will 
no longer be evidence that its bearer has been instructed in Latin and Greek; and 

Whereas it is evident that the proposed change seriously concerns the bearers of this 
degree everywhere; and , 

Whereas it is our clear conviction that the introduction of such a change in the con- 
ditions and significance of the degree in yom- institution would injuriously affect every 
classical college in America, and the work which they are now able to do for the cause 
of a truly liberal education: 

We therefore, representatives of the New England College Association — in which 
from the beginning Harvard College has been an honored participant, and with which 
the Harvard College faculty has lately cooperated in the securing of more uniform 
requirements for admission to all our colleges — do hereby earnestly and respectfully 
request yom* honorable body not to approve of the proposed changes until after pro- 
curing a formal expression of opinion upon the subject from the leading colleges of the 
United States. 

As true friends of the venerable and flourishing institution of which you have the 
oversight, and as in some measure jointly responsible with yourselves for the educa- 
tional standards and work and reputation of our country, we venture to present this 
respectful request and to hope that it will be received as evidence that in the fellow- 
ship of a common aim we are, 
Most sincerely, yoius, 

But the advocates of the new policy which broke with the tradi- 
tions of the past were in ascendancy, and no action appears to have 
been taken by the overseers with reference to this appeal. How the 
matter was regarded by some of the oldest and most honored colleges 
outside of New England is shown by a letter of Prof. A. F. West, 
Princeton College, to the Independent, New York, Ma^^ 6 and 13, 
1886. He says, among many other thmgs, of the changed significance 
of the A, B. degree at Harvard: 

It does not mean, nor does it include as part of its meaning, what it has always meant 
heretofore, and that is the completion of a common course of disciplinary studies. It 
does not then mean what the old college degree did; and to transfer it, with whatever 



22 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

prestige the old degree gave, to label all sorts of attainment, is academic misrepre- 
sentation. If the comprehensive significance of the degree at Harvard needs the 
prestige of the old title to give it presumptive acceptance, then the reason for its trans- 
ference is intelligible; but it is unique in educational history. If it does not need 
this, it is unfair to obscure a hitherto well-understood degree by destroying its old 
meaning. Let everything be labeled for what it is; and where it has meant one dis- 
tinct thing for ages, let a new degree label the new education so that it may come out 
from under cover of the old title for inspection. 

Per contra, President Eliot, in the Annual Report of Harvard 
College for 1888-89, declares that— 

the changes in the requirements announced in 1886 were not intended to lower in the 
slightest degree the standard of admission, and have had no such effect. 

The protagonist on the conservative side was President Noah 
Porter, of Yale. His protesting articles, gathered in the second edi- 
tion of his book "The American Colleges and the American Public" 
in 1878, confirmed Yale and the overwhelming majority of the smaller 
colleges m standing fast through this quarter of a century in requiring 
Greek for admission, and m admittmg to the curriculum a minimum 
number of electives, limited to the upper classes. President Porter 
rests a part of his argument upon the failure of the public to patronize 
and'the colleges to contmue the parallel and special courses of study 
substituting the modern languages for Greek and Latin, mtroducing 
a larger amount of what have been later known as the practical sub- 
jects. He cites the experiment of Amherst and Harvard in 1826, the 
University of Vermont m 1829, Brown in 1850, and the change of the 
scientific schools from teaching every student whatever he cared to 
study to a regular curriculum. Half unconsciously President Porter 
comes near indorsing what we now know as "the group system" as 
over agamst that of free electives. In combating President Eliot, 
he says (p. 21): 

The election is not between courses of studies having an order and progress defined 
by obvious characteristics and controlled by some distinct purpose, but it is between 
one set of studies and another from term to term, according to the capricious or wise 
judgment of the student. In this particular Harvard falls behind most of the other 
universities and colleges which have adopted the elective system. 

The apparent complete anarchy in the curriculum where practically 
absolutely free electives were offered was in part prevented in Har- 
vard by the tradition of the institution in New England and by the 
requirements of prerequisites for certain courses. Leland Stanford, 
with the same apparent anarchy, relied upon the strong advisory 
system for the students. The tendency to the debasement of scholar- 
ship by a choice of "snap courses" was thus in part held in check. 
The greatest contribution of this period was the carrying tlirough of 
the experiment with reference to free electives, bringing almost a 
universal reaction in the next period toward some form of the group 
system, and the adoption in the present period in loading institutions 



INTR0DUCTI01>f. 23 

of the group system. Michigan University and the State universities 
generally, with Cornell practically representing them in the East, 
brought the group system into general favor, the benefits of election 
being preserved in the election of the group without the perils of the 
election of individual courses. 

The greatest contribution of this quarter of a century in the United 
States was the differentiation of the university from the college, which 
has cleared up in the first decade of the twentieth century many 
matters not only in the way of standards of secondary schools, col- 
leges, and universities pertaining to admission and graduation, but 
^Iso as to curricula, methods of instruction, etc., the details of which 
will be handled in succeedmg appropriate chapters. In this period, 
and particularly marking its close and the opening of the first decade 
of the twentieth century, appeared associations and organizations as 
standardizing agencies. The conflicts of mstitutions, like Harvard 
and Yale., the diversity of standards, and the rich endowments 
brought a rapid consummation in one decade of the twentieth cen- 
tury of a century's preparation for something Uke universal standards. 
The decade promises to be an epoch introducing an era of peace and 
progress in education, succeeding the conflicts and concfliations the 
battle cries of which were the Ancients and Moderns, the Humanist 
and the Scientist, the Classical and the Practical, the Old and the New 
education. 



CHAPTER I. 
PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 

ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 

UNIFORMITY OF ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 

The diversity of college entrance requirements in the last quarter 
of the nineteenth century brought a demand from the preparatory 
schools for more of uniformity. With the incoming of the elective 
system and of new subjects, particularly in the high schools, each 
college setting its own examinations increased the variations. The 
transfer of students from one college to another increased the diffi- 
culties. The attendance of students from wider areas, facilitated by 
the prosperity of the country after the Civil War and the conveniences 
for transportation, heightened the demand for uniformity. The New 
England colleges held various conferences, beginning in the early 
seventies. A comparison of college catalogues and examination 
papers was made at a conference of New England colleges at Trinity 
College in 1879.^ 

In 1881-82 Prof. A. S. Hill, of Harvard, and Prof. Winchester, of 
Wesleyan, secured the adoption by their universities of common 
requirements in English. By 1885 four or five colleges had adopted 
similar requirements. The success of this movement for uniform 
requirements m English chiefly led to the formation of the New Eng- 
land Conunission.- The Commission of Colleges in New England on 
Admission Examinations was established m 1886 for the purpose of 
attempting as far as possible to make uniformity of examinations 
admitting to college as far as requirements were the same.^ This com- 
mission was effective for some 15 years. Its experiences with a vari- 
ety of forms of certificates led it to believe that the trouble was not 
so much with the form of the certificate as with the approval of the 
schools. The result was the establishment of the New England Certi- 
ficate Board for the Approval of Schools. The coUeges agreed they 
would receive no pupils from schools in New England which were not 
approved (p. 46). The fundamental principle of the board appears 
in this rule: "No school will be approved until it has shown, by the 
record which its students already admitted to college make, its ability 
to give thorough preparation for college" (p. 49). 

The secondary school men made their activities felt through the 
proposition of the Massachusetts classical and high-school teachers' 

1 Carnegie Foundation, 3d an. rep., 1908, p. 94. 

2 North Cen. Assoc., proc., 1898, p. 80. 

3 Proc. ISlh an. eonv. of Assoc, of Col. and Prep. Schs. of Middle States and Md., p. 45. 

24 



PRESENT STANDARDS OP LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 25 

association in 1884 to the heads of the New England colleges for a 
conference with preparatory-school teachers. From this conference 
sprang the New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory 
Schools, the first organization of the kind.^ 

In 1887, 15 colleges in Pennsylvania formed the College Association 
of Pennsylvania. The next year this association was enlarged and 
named the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools in the 
Middle States and Maryland "with the purpose of considering the 
qualifications for candidates for admission to the colleges and the 
methods of admission" (p. 95). 

The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools 
was organized in 1895; also the Association of Colleges and Prepara- 
tory Schools of the Southern States. On the part of the colleges these 
associations have been reenforced by associations like the Ohio Col- 
lege Association, Missouri College Union, the Association of Colleges 
of South Carolina, and like associations in Kansas and lUmois. 

The provmcial and local associations led to the development of a 
national movement for uniformity in admission requirements, the 
first step for which was taken in the report of the Committee of Ten 
of the National Educational Association, appointed in 1892. "With 
uniformity in the secondary schools, uniformity in college entrance 
requirements would follow as a natural sequence."" In 1895 the 
National Educational Association raised a committee on coUege 
entrance requirements, whose report in 1899 suggested not only 
uniformity in requirements but also flexibility. 

In these later days the Association of Collegiate Alumnge, formed in 
1882, setting up scholarly standards in various sections of the country 
among women's institutions, contributed to the national movement. 
The Methodist Episcopal Church (North) was early in the field as a 
standardizing agency. The General Conference of 1868, stimulated 
by the great centennial movement of 1866, instituted a board of edu- 
cation.^ In 1892 the scope of the board was enlarged and a univer- 
sity senate was authorized to formulate a standard of requirements 
for graduation to the baccalaureate degree m church schools, and the 
board was authorized to apply this standard and classify as colleges 
such institutions as met the requirements. The board provided: 

Requirements Relating to the Preparatory (Pre-Collegiate) Courses. 

Before admission to regular membership in the college classes, candidates for any of 
the degrees below named, or for any similar collegiate degree, must have completed 
in a satisfactory manner one of the fom* following com'ses, to wit: 

A. Pre-Collegiate Course for Candidates for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts (A. B.): 
1. English (or other vernacular of the candidate). The equivalent of 2 hours a 
week for 2 yeai's in class instruction. 

1 Third an. rep. Carnegie Foundation, p. 95. 

2 Ibid., p. 102. 

3 Rep. Bd. Educ. M. E. Church, Gen. Conf., 1900, pp. 3S-39. 



26 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

2. Latin. The equivalent of at least 4 hours a week for 3 years, covering at least 4 
books of Caesar, 4 books of Virgil, and 6 orations of Cicero, or full equivalents of the 
foregoing. 

3. Greek. The equivalent of at least 4 hoiu^s a week for 2 years, covering at least 
an elementaiy textbook, 3 books of Xenophon's Anabasis, and 3 books of Homer, or 
full equivalents of the foregoing. In a 3 years' precollegiate course the study of 
Greek is expected to begin with the opening of the second year, but if it be deferred 
until the opening of the third year the study must be continued an additional year in 
the college. If deferred until the candidate enters college, it must be continued 2 
additional years — that is, untH the end of the junior year. 

4. Modern language. In case a modern language other than the candidate's ver- 
nacular is offered as a substitute for Greek, the minimum requirement shall be the 
equivalent of at least 4 hours a week of class instruction for 2 years. 

5. Mathematics, beyond arithmetic. The equivalent of at least 4 hours a week of 
class instruction for 2 years, covering algebra through quadratics and the whole of 
plane geometry. 

6. History. The equivalent of at least 3 hours a week of class instruction for 1 year. 

B. Pre- Collegiate Course for Candidates for the Degree of Bachelor of Science (Sc. B.). 

1. English (or other vernacular of the candidate). The same as in course A. 

2. Other languages. The equivalent of at least 4 hours a week of class instruction 
for 2 years in any two of the following: Latin, Greek, German, French. 

3. Mathematics. The same as in course A. 

4. History. The same as in course A. 

5. Science — physical, biological, or both. The equivalent of at least 3 hours a week 
of class instruction for 1 year. 

C. Pre-Collegiate Course for Candidates for the Degree of Bachelor of Philosophy 
(Ph. B.): 

J. English (or other vernacular of the candidate). The same as in course A. 

2. Other modern languages. The equivalent of at least 4 hoiu-s a week of class 
instruction for 1 year. 

3. Ancient language. Latin, the same as in course A, or Greek, the equivalent of 
at least 4 hours a week of class instruction for 3 years. 

4. Mathematics. The same as in coiu"se A. 

5. History. The same as in course A. 

D. Pre-Collegiate Course for Candidates for the Degree of Bachelor of Letters (Litt. B.): 

1. English (or other vernacular of the candidate). The equivalent of at least 4 
hours a week of class instruction for 2 years. 

2. Other languages. In any two of the following — Latin, Greek, German, French, 
Spanish, Italian — the equivalent of at least 4 horn's a week of class instruction for 2 
years. 

• 3. Mathematics. The same as in course A. 

4. History. The same as in course A. 

It is further required that each of these 4 precollegiate courses extend through at 
least 3 years of not less than 32 weeks, each week including not less than 15 hoiu-s of 
class instruction. The remaining horn's of the 15 required as a minimum must be 
filled with work more advanced than ordinary elementary studies. 

The university senate in 1909 determined that after 1912 no insti- 
tution ''shall be officially recognized by the church as a college or 
university which does not require four years of preparatory work for 
admission to the freshman class." ^ 

The two most effective nationalizing agencies were the College 
Entrance Examination Board, organized in 1900, with its uniform 

1 The Christian Student, Vol. XI, Feb., 1910, No. 1, p. 18. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 27 

definitions of the contents of units and rating examinations, and the 
New England College Entrance Certificate Board, formed in May, 
1902. The latter board has practically made the accrediting system, 
developed by the State universities, a national system, only 7 leading 
institutions now clinging to the examination plan of admission. The 
colleges in the New England Certificate Board naturally have come 
individually to accept such high schools as they see fit that are 
accredited by the great provincial associations and State universities. 

Pubhc-spirited private enterprise has reenforced the national move- 
ment for uniformity of standards by the founding in 1902 of the Gen- 
eral Education Board, which gathered and classified the data concerning 
all institutions professing and calling themselves colleges, and stimu- 
lated by gifts those that gave promise of being standard institutions. 
In 1905 the gift by which the Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- 
ment of Teaching was launched incidentally brought about the study 
of standards and the requirement of certain standards for an accepted 
institution, which have established the definition of a college. 

In 1906, springing out of the discussions of the examination, cer- 
tificate, and accrediting plans of admission for colleges, particularly 
in the National Education Association and through the nationalizing 
influences of the National Association of State Universities, was estab- 
Hshed the National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges 
and Secondary Schools. This committee, consisting of delegates 
from 9 of the great provincial associations and educational agencies, 
makes possible the coordination of standards and terms, and crowns 
the national movement. 

The national movement for standards, largely carried forward by 
voluntary associations, since the State is the educational unit, has 
been powerfully promoted by the statutory enactment of standards 
by the great State of New York, followed by several other States, also 
by the influence of State universities in other States, and by the equiva- 
lent of statutory provisions by State boards of education or educa- 
tional examiners. New York State has one of the first legal definitions 
of a college, later adopted by the Carnegie Foundation: 

College defined: An institution to be ranked as a college must have at least six pro- 
fessors giving their entire time to college or university work, a course of foiu" full years 
of college grade in liberal arts and sciences, and should require for admission not less 
than the usual four years of academic or high-school preparation, or its equivalent, in 
addition to the preacademic or grammar-school studies.^ 

College entrance diploma.^ — The history of State academic credentials covers a period 
of exactly 30 years. By a statute enacted in 1877 the board of regents was directed 
to establish academic examinations in the schools under their general control and 
thereby to furnish a suitable standard of graduation from secondary schools and of 
admission to college. In accordance with this law, the first academic diploma was 
issued June 5, 1880, and the first classical academic diploma February 20, 1883. The 



1 Edue. Dept. State of N. Y., Handbook 32, sec. 24, June, 1911. 

2 Ibid., An. Kept., 1908, p. 237. 



28 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

standard of these two credentials differed somewhat from that of the present time. 
The former requu-ed no study of foreign languages and presupposed only 3 years' 
work, while the latter, which has often been called a "college entrance diploma," 
covered a curriculum of 4 years, providing for the study of Latin, Greek, mathematics, 
and American history, but giving no recognition to English, science, or the modern 
foreign languages. In 1891 the course of studies preparatory to college was cut down 
to 3 years, and this limitation continued until 1895, after which date all secondary- 
school diplomas issued by authority of the board of regents were based upon a 4-year 
program of studies. 

Although at the outset the classical diploma included only the subjects required for 
college entrance, it appears that in consequence of an irresistible demand for a more 
equitable recognition of English, science, and history, certain limitations were placed 
on the issuance of this credential which interfered with its usefulness as a means of 
admission to college. These limitations were expressed in a regents' rule whereby 
no academic or classical diploma could be issued to a student unless he had passed 
examinations in specified groups of subjects that compelled him to give at least one- 
eighth of his time to English and one-sixth respectively to mathematics, history, and 
science. The result was that the student intending to present the classical diploma 
for admission to college could obtain from the college only a partial recognition of the 
time given to the study of history and no credit for his training in science. The 
manifest purpose of this regulation was to secure symmetry of education in the second- 
ary school and to discourage the establishment or continuance of com-ses of study that 
merely met the needs of college preparatory students and ignored other subjects of 
study deemed essential for a well-rounded education. It is now evident, however, 
that the dominating influence of the colleges over the courses of study in the public 
high schools has nearly, if not quite, disappeared and that the more modern subjects 
of study are no less firmly intrenched than the time-honored subjects of Latin and 
Greek. The usefulness of the classical diploma has been subjected to additional 
restrictions by the fact that, although nearly all the colleges now accept the modem 
foreign languages as an equivalent of Greek in college preparation, the board of regents 
up to the present time has declined to issue a classical academic diploma that does 
not include the study of Greek for 3 years. 

To remove these barriers that stand in the way of students preparing for college, 
a college entrance diploma is issued. 

College entrance diploma.^ — This diploma, which is in substantial agreement with the 
entrance requirements of all the colleges of the State, is designed to guide students pre- 
paring for college and to facilitate their admission. It will be issued only to such stu- 
dents in the schools as pass satisfactory examinations after giving to the study of each sub- 
ject the amount of time required by the regents' rules. The grades of this credential 
will be differentiated in accord with those prescribed for the academic diploma. On its 
face will he indicated the subjects studied and the ratings obtained in examinations. 

Requirements for a college entrance diploma. 

Arts department: Counts. Science department: Counts. 

English 13 English 13 

Algebra 7 Algebra 7 

Plane geometry 5| Plane geometry 5 

Latin 20 ' Fii-st foreign lang. (2 years) 10 

Second foreign lang. (2 years). . . 10 , Second foreign lang. (2 years). . . 10 



History 5 

Electives 10 



70 



Physics 5 

History 5 

Electives 15 



70 

Edue. Dept., State of N. Y., An. Rept., 1909, 43f>-439. 



PKESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 29 

Possible electives. 



Fii'st foreign lang. (3d yr.) 5 

Second foreign lang. (3d yr.)., 5 

Third foreign lang. (2 years) 10 

Physics 5 

Chemistry 5 

Physiography 5 

Advanced botany 5 



Counts. Counts. 

Advanced zoology 5 

Advanced algebra 3 

Solid geometry. .| 

Trigonometry ... J 

History 3 or 5 

Drawing 3 

Advanced drawing 3 



N. B. — The electives must conform to the admission requirements of the college 
which the student intends to enter. 

Modifications of requirements for academic and college entrance diplomas} 

By action of the regents on April 1, 1909, the requirements for academic and college 
entrance diplomas were modified so as to provide that the lowestgrade of diploma shall 
be based upon a minimum passing mark of 60 per cent in each subject. This action 
was taken after much discussion in the department and in the State Examinations 
Board and after many conferences and prolonged correspondence with college author- 
ities relative to the following requirements for academic and college entrance diplomas: 

1. In general, candidates for diplomas must prepare for examinations in schools 
that have complied with the requirements of the State Education Department in 
respect to buildings, laboratories, laboratory equipment, libraries, and courses of study. 

2. In the public high schools of the State instruction must be given by teachers of 
ascertained qualifications, licensed by the State Education Department or by local 
authorities, in accordance with regulations prescribed by the department. 

3. In all secondary schools recognized by the State Education Department methods 
of instruction must have the approval of the department based upon the reports of 
official inspectors who regularly visit the schools. 

4. The syllabuses or outlines in accordance with which studies are pursued have 
been prepared under the direction of the State Education Department hj committees 
of well-known teachers in secondary schools and colleges. 

5. All question papers for the semiannual examinations are prepared by committees 
consisting of 3 members each, viz, a representatiA^e of the secondary schools, a repre- 
sentative of the colleges, and a representative of the State Education Department. 
These committees are appointed by the Commissioner of Education, upon nomination 
of the New York State Examinations Board. All question papers are carefully 
reviewed by a committee of the State Examinations Board, known as the committee 
on final revision, which consists of 4 representatives of the State Education Depart- 
ment, 2 representatives of colleges, and 2 representatives of secondary schools. 

6. All answer papers are read originally by teachers of the schools in which they are 
written and then forwarded to the examinations division of the State Education Depart- 
ment in Albany for rereading and rating by the examiners of the department. No 
paper is accepted or assigned credit for a diploma if its final rating falls below 60 per 
cent. 

Papers wi'itten by students who are unaljle to produce certificates of instruction 
within approved schools for adequate time are not accepted upon a final rating of less 
than 75 per cent. 

In view of the above-described exacting requirements, it was maintained that the 
academic and college entrance diplomas issued by the New York State Education 
Department are worthy of recognition by the colleges and universities for purposes of 
admission; and in recognition of the high standards of instruction and scholarship 
demanded 'by these requirements, the following-named institutions have agreed to 

1 Educ. Dept., State of N. Y., An. Kept., 1910, p. 256. 



30 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

accept for purposes of admission diplomas issued by the New York State Education 
Department in accordance with the amendment of the regents' revised rules, in so 
far as the qualifications for those diplomas meet the requirements for admission to the 
several institutions. [Forty- three colleges, such as Amherst, Bowdoin, Columbia, 
Cornell, and Dartmouth, including 19 outside of New York State, already accept these 
diplomas.] 

INCREASE IN ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS. 

In 1906 the increase in admission requirements so drew the atten- 
tion of the Schoolmasters' Association of New York and Vicinity 
that that association passed resolutions and submitted them to the 
College Entrance Examination Board : 

Resolved, That in the judgment of this association college entrance requirements 
are at present too great in quantity to secure the best quality of preparation. 

Resolved, That the College Entrance Examination Board be requested to revise 
its requirements by reducing the quantity in certain subjects. The particular modi- 
fications are : 

(1) Elementary algebra. — The omission of the subjects beyond quadratics. 

(2) Plane geometry. — The preparation of a syllabus containing the essential propo-' 
sitions and the restriction of original work to exercises based upon those propositions. 

(3) French and German (elementary and intermediate). — The revision of the lists 
of recommended books and the reduction of the number of pages to be read. 

(4) Physics. — A reduction in the amount of mathematical work demanded. 

(5) History. — The restriction of questions requiring "comparison and the use of 
judgment on the pupil's part" to such as are commensurate with the maturity of 
secondary-school students; the ending of the period of ancient history with the death 
of Diocletian (A. D. 305). 

Resolved, That in the judgment of this association 15 points, as indicated on the 
attached scale, are all that may reasonably be required for admission by any college: 

Points. 

English 3 

Algebra and plane geometrj' 3 

Latin 4 

Greek 3 



Elementary P'rench or German 2 



Points. 

Intermediate French or German 1 

History (each field) 1 

Solid geometry and ])lane trigonom- 
etry i 

Physics or chemistry 1 



Though the chairman of the board ruled "that the court had no 
jurisdiction," steps toward the unification of admission requirements 
were taken through the appointment of a committee on the defini- 
tion of each subject and a committee to review the entire college 
requirements. The board brought about, by an instruction to its com- 
mittees on definitions to review the definitions and to limit the same 
in harmony with the recommendations of the Schoolmasters' Asso- 
ciation of New York and Vicmity, a provision for a cooperation of 
commissions with specialists. 

The degree of uniformity in the requirements for admission to 
college may best be deduced from specimen requirements in 1912 
taken from representative college catalogues or bulletins in different 
sections of the country. A comparison of these terms of admission 
with those in the quarters of the nineteenth century may be made. 
(Cf. pp. 10, 14, 18, 19.) The representative colleges selected are the 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 31 

colleges of liberal arts in the 22 universities which are members of 
the Association of American Universities and 14 typical independent 
colleges. 

ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS OF REPRESENTATIVE UNIVERSITIES AND 
COLLEGES.^ 

Albion College, Albion, Mich., 1911-12: 15 units — 7 required of all, plus 2 in foreign 



Kequired: English 3, mathematics 2 or 3, physics 1, foreign language 2. 

Electives 8, or 7 from above subjects plus history and usual sciences. 

Also accepts work of best high schools of 12 grades. 

Beloit College, Beloit, Wis., 1911-12: 15 units — 8 required of all; condition of 2 units 
if candidate presents total of 14. 
' Required: English 2, mathematics 2, foreign language 2, history 1, science 1. 

Electives in above subjects plus civics and economics, total 7. 

Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me., 1911-12: 14|^ units — 10 required, plus 4J electives, 
either Greek or French or German 2. 

Required for A. B: English 3, mathematics 3, Latin 3, history 1. 

Electives limited to 4| — foreign language, history, mathematics (including trigo- 
nometry), chemistry, and physics; advanced Latin urged. For B. S., 9 required, 
foreign language 2, electives 5J. 

Carleton College, Northfield, Minn., 1911-12: 15 units required of all. Conditions 
permitted in IJ units. 

Required: English 4, mathematics 2 (algebra 1, plane geometry 1), plus, for B. A., 
Latin 2, and for B. S., foreign language 2, mathematics 1, science 2. 

Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y., 1911-12: 14 units — 7 required of all. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 3, history 1, plus, for B. A., foreign language 6 
(including Latin or Greek), electives 1; for B. S., foreign language 4, science 1, elec- 
tives 2. 

Electives limited to above subjects plus chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, 
physiology. 

Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa, 1911-12: 15 units (unit equals 5 hours per 
week for 36 weeks) — for A. B., 13 required; B. S., 12|^ required; B. S. in engineering, 
11|^ required. 

Required for A. B.: English 3, Latin 4, foreign language 2, mathematics (algebra, 
plane and solid geometry) 3, history 1. 

Electives: Civics -|, economics -|, science 1^, history ^ to IJ. 

Required for B. S.: English 3, foreign language 4, mathematics 3, science 1|-, his- 
tory 1. 

Electives: Foreign language, science, history, civics, economics, 2 J. 

Required for B. S. in engineering: English 3, foreign language 2, mathematics 3, 
history 1, science 1^, civics and economics 1. 

Electives: History, foreign language, science, bookkeeping, manual training, 
drawing, 3J. 

Grinnell College, Grinncll, Iowa, 1911-12: 15 units — 7^ requii'ed of all. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 2J, history 1, science 1, plus foreign language 4. 

Electives from above subjects plus civics, economics, bookkeeping, drawing, man- 
ual training ^. 

Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., 1911-12: 15 units (requirements not stated in units) 
required of all: English, mathematics, foreign language, history, geography. 

iFor definition of units as used in this statement, see p. 35. 



32 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Required: For A. B. course, Latin and Greek; for B. S. courses, physics or chem- 
istry and a modern language. 

Pomona College, Claremont, Cal., 1912-13: 15 units — 8 required of all. 

Required: English 2, mathematics 2, foreign language 2, history 1, science 1; plus 
for A. B., English or foreign language; for B. S., mathematics and science 2. 

Electives in above subjects (including Spanish) and vocational subjects include 
drawing, music, commercial agriculture, industrial and applied arts. 

Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J., 1911-12: 15 imits (14 units technical B. S.) — 
8 required of all. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 3 or 4, plus foreign language 7, 3, or 2, history 
2 or 1. 

Tulane University, Neio Orleans, La., 1911-12: 14| units — 6 required of all, plus foreign 
language 2, history 2 or 1 or science 1. Admitted to partial standing on 12 units. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 3, foreign language 2-5, history 2, science 1. 

Electives include trigonometry, biology, free-hand drawing, shopwork. 

Vanderhilt University, Nashville, Tenn., 1912-13: 14 units — 6 required of all. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 3; plus for A. B., classical language 7, history 
or science 1; for other degrees, foreign language 4, history and science 2, plus addi- 
tional 2. 

Wahash College, Crawfordsville, Ind., 1911-12: 16 units — 11 prescribed. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 3, foreign language 3, history 1, science 1. 

Electives, "any subject taught in a commissioned high school." 

Williams College, Williamstoivn, Mass., 1911-12: 14J or 15 units, of which lOJ units, 
are the same in all groups. 

Required of all: English 3, history 1, Latin 4, mathematics 2J, and 3 or 3^ units of 
French, German, Greek, French and advanced mathematics, or German and ad- 
vanced mathematics. 

Also an elective subject — a language, science, or history. 

University of California, Be^-Jceley, Cal., 1912-13: 15 units — 5 required of all (except 
4-year engineering courses), plus foreign language 4, science 1. 

Required: English 2, mathematics 2, United States history 1. 

Electives include trigonometry, Spanish, industrial arts, agriculture, music. 

Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C, 1912-13: 14 or 15 (?) units — 10^ 
required, plus Greek 2^, French 1, or French and German 3^, or French or German 
with physics or chemistry 4. Required : English 3, mathematics 2 J, Latin 4, history 1. 

Chicago University, Chicago, III. (See p. 45.) 

Clark University, Worcester, 3fass.: Purely graduate school. 

Columbia University {including Barnard College), New York City, 1911-12: 14J 
units — 5^ required of all, plus Latin 4 for A. B., and physics and chemistry 2 for B. S. 
(Columbia College), or science 2 for B. S. (Barnard). 

Required: English 3, mathematics 2^. 

Electives include trigonometry, Italian, Spanish, shopwork, music. 

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 1912-13: 15 units — I. Arts, sciences 4, and law, 6 
electives. II. Agriculture, 6 electives. III. Architecture, civil and mechanical 
engineering, 4 electives. 

Required: English 3 in all courses, foreign language 5 and 3, history 1 in all, math- 
ematics 2 in all, plus (in III) mathematics 2. 

Electives: In addition to the above — physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, biology, 
physiography, drawing, agriculture, manual training. 

Harvard University, Cambridge, Ma.ss., 1911-12: 26 old-plan points (1 point equals 
0.6 of a unit as reckoned by the Carnegie Foundation, 26 points equal 16 units). 
Prescribed, 14; elective, 12; conditions may be allowed. 

Required: English 4, modern language 2, history 2, mathematics 4, science 2; 
plus for A. B., ancient language 4; plus for B. S., modern language 2. 



PEESBNT STANDAEDS OF LIBEEAL AETS COLLEGES. 33 

Electives: In subjects enumerated above and music, drawing, civil government, 
economics, for B. S. only, woodworking, blacksmithing, chipping, filing and fitting, 
machine-tool work. For new plan of admission, see p. 42. 

Illinois University, Urbana-Cham'paign, III., 1911-12: 15 units — 5J prescribed for 
all courses, 9 J elective; college of arts prescribes, in addition, history 1, foreign 
language 3 or 4. For colleges of science and agriculture: Science 2. For engineering: 
geometry J, physics 1. For music: History 1, foreign language 3, music 2. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 2 J. 

Electives: Astronomy, botany, chemistry, civics, commercial geography, draw- 
ing, foreign language, geology, geometry, history, physics, physical geography, physi- 
ology, zoology, agriculture, bookkeeping, business law, domestic science, economics, 
manual training. 

Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., 1912: 16 units — prescribed, 11; elective, 5. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 3, foreign language 3, history 1, science 1. 

Electives: "Any subjects taught in a commissioned high school, and credited 
by said high school as a part of its regular 4-year course, will be accepted." 

State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1911-12: 15 units — 8J required for liberal 
arts and 9 for applied science. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 2\, one foreign language 2, history 1. 

Electives: GJ or 6 units. 

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., 1912: 16 units (?) — "Evidence of a satis- 
factory knowledge" of mathematics, English, history, Latin, Greek, or French and 
German, physical geography, or a science such as botany, chemistry, or physics, 
free-hand drawing. Applicant must furnish certified statements of the successful 
completion of courses in the subjects required. He will then be admitted to the 
matriculation examination. 

Kansas University, Lawrence, Kans., 1911-12: 15 units — llj prescribed, 3| elective. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 2|, foreign language 3, physical science 1, bio- 
logical science 1, history 1. 

" Electives: English 1, mathematics 1|, foreign language 3J, physical science 2, 
"biological science 2, history 3J, vocational subjects 3^. 

Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal., 1912: 15 units. "The university 
is prepared to recognize for entrance credit any subject having an established place 
in the secondary school curriculmn in which adequate instruction is given and which 
is pursued to satisfactory results. No prescription, other than English, is made. 
Candidates desiring to study mathematics must obviously offer such elementary 
mathematics as is not taught in the university, and engineering students are expected 
to offer also solid geometry and trigonometry. Candidates desiring to study Latin 
should offer at least two entrance units in that subject." 

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1911-12: 15 units — 8 required; 7 elective. 
May be conditioned up to 2 units. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 2, science 1, foreign language 2. 

Electives: English, mathematics, Greek, Latin, French, German, Spanish, history, 
physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, physiography, physiology, geology; not more 
than 3 units from gi'oup including agriculture, domestic science, drawing, manual 
training, commercial branches. 

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn., 1912-13: 15 units — 6 required; 9 elec- 
tive; no conditions allowed. 

Required: English 4, mathematics 2. 

Electives: Mathematics 1, foreign language 2 or 4, history 3, economics 24, American 
government J, science 5 or 6; not more than 4 units from vocational group, 16i or 19^. 

University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo., 1911-12; J5 units — 7 required; 8 elective; 
conditions allowed . 

62400°— 13 3 



34 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Required: English 3, mathematics 2, foreign language 2. 

Electives: English 1, mathematics 2^, history 4, civil government J, foreign lan- 
guage 2, science 2, agriculture, music, bookkeeping, 1 each; drawing, manual training, 
domestic science, 2 each; economics, commercial geography, J each; only 4 units 
accepted in commercial and industrial subjects. 

University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nehr., 1912-13: 30 points (equivalent to 15 units; 
1 point represents 1 semester hour). In terms of units, 9 required; 6 elective. 

Required: English 2, mathematics 2, history 1, foreign language 3, science 1. 

Electives: In addition to those above, "subjects taught in an approved manner in 
an accredited secondary school." 

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., 1911-12: 23 points (value of the 
point not stated ') — 10 points are required; 13 elective. 

Required: English 4 points, mathematics 4, history 2. 

Electives: Mathematics 3 points, Latin 7, Greek 6, French and German 3 each, 
Spanish 2, science 8. 

Princeton University, Princeton, N. J., 1911-12: For A. B., English, mathematics, 
Latin, Greek, modern languages, history required of all; for B. S. and Litt. B., 
Greek replaced by modem languages, adding mathematics or science. 

Prescribed subjects are chosen from groups in the case of history, modern languages, 
and science. 

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va., 1911-12: 14 units — lOJ required for A. B.; 
8J required for B. S.; others elective. 

Required: A. B., English 3, mathematics 2^, history 1, Latin 4. B. S., English 3, 
mathematics 2i, history 1, 2 modern languages 4. 

Electives: English 4, mathematics 3 J, history 4, Latin 4, Greek 2, German, French, 
Spanish 2 each, science 4, drawing 1, shopwork 1. 

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., 1911-12: 14 units — 6 required; 8 elective. 
Students may be admitted without foreign languages, but language conditions must 
be met later. 

Required: English 2, mathematics 2, foreign language 2. 

Electives : English 2, mathematics 2, foreign language 4, history 4, civics 1, economics 
\, science 4, vocational subjects, not more than 4 units, optional (any subject not 
specified in electives) 1. 

Yale University, New Haven, Conn., 1911-12: Candidates are admitted to the fresh- 
man class on passing a satisfactory examination in: (i) Latin; (ii) French or German; 
(iii) English; (iv) mathematics; (v) additional subjects, of which 4 out of a list of 
12 must be offered. Since 1911, candidates have met the requirements also by 
passing with satisfactory grades the equivalent subjects in the examination set by the 
College Entrance Examination Board and presenting theii- board certificates for 
credit. 

Additional subjects include: Greek, French or German, solid geometry and 
plane trigonometry, physics, chemistry, history. 

UNIFORMITY AND UNITS OF ADMISSION. 

The first notable effort toward securing uniformity of entrance 
requirements and definition of units of admission was a conference 
of New England colleges held in December, 1879. Since that date 
various efficient organizations have arisen to secure the needed co-' 
operation between the colleges themselves and between colleges and 
secondary schools. Chief among these organizations are the Col- 

' Designations and definitions of requirements are identical with those of the College Entrance Exami- 
nation Board. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 35 

lege Entrance Examination Board, organized in 1900, made up of 
29 representatives of universities, colleges, and schools of technology, 
and 9 representatives of secondary schools; the North Central Asso- 
ciation of Colleges and Secondary Schools (1892) and its commission 
on accredited schools and colleges, the Association of Colleges and 
Preparatory Schools in the Middle States and Maryland, the Associa- 
tion of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Southern States, and 
the New England College Entrance Certificate Board (1902). To 
secure still further cooperation there was formed in 1906 the National 
Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary 
Schools, composed of representatives of the organizations just men- 
tioned, together with representatives of certain other bodies, like the 
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and the 
United States Bureau of Education. 

The result of this movement for uniformity has been the wide 
adoption of the definitions of requirements in various subjects 
recommended by national conferences, committees, and associations 
like those already mentioned. In fact, it may be said that these 
definitions have now come into common use by all sorts of institu- 
tions throughout the United States. The definition of a unit as 
formulated by the National Conference Committee on Standards of 
Colleges and Secondary Schools, October 9, 1909, adopted by the 
College Entrance Examination Board and approved by the associa- 
tions of colleges and preparatory schools of the North Central States, 
of the Middle States and Maryland, and of the Southern States is as 
follows : 

"A unit represents a year's study in any subject in a secondary school, constituting ap- 
proximately a quarter of a full year's work." 

This statement is designed to afford a standard of measurement for the work done 
in secondary schools. It takes the 4Tyear high-school course as a basis, and assiunes 
that the length of the school year is from 36 to 40 weeks, that a period is from 40 to 
60 minutes in length, and that the study is pursued for 4 or 5 periods a week; but, 
vmder ordinary cii-ciunstances, a satisfactory year's work in any subject can not be 
accomplished in less than 120 sixty-minute hours or their equivalent. Schools 
organized on any other than a 4-year basis can, nevertheless, estimate their work in 
terms of this unit. 

Smce the number of students taking the exammations conducted 
by the College Entrance Exammation Board is so very large and 
represents so great a number of schools in every section of the United 
States, the syllabus or definition of requirements of this board is 
printed in full in Appendix A (p. 143). This represents the scope 
and nature of the preparation which the students in the secondary 
school must make m anticipation of the examination. 

The method of admission by certificate, represented by the North 
Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, is in con- 



36 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

trast with the method of the College Entrance Exammation Board. 
The former association, which antedates the latter in this important 
field, has enjoyed the fruits of the labors of committees of college 
and secondary-school men, and has made fuller recognition of the 
place in secondary-school curricula of the sciences and of the newer 
subjects m commerce, business, and manual training. The defini- 
tions of units and requirements of the commission of the North Cen- 
tral Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools for 1910, so far 
as they vary significantly from those of the College Entrance Exami- 
nation Board, are presented in Appendix B. Duplication in the two 
syllabi thus presented has been avoided so far as possible without 
destroying their unity. 

METHODS OF ADMISSION. 

The last 20 years have witnessed a steady growth of the system of 
admission to college by certificate rather than by examination, 
especially m the State universities and in general outside of New 
England. At the same time the number of students takmg the 
examinations of the College Entrance Examination Board has also 
enormously increased. An outlme of these methods of admission, 
and of their administration by different mstitutions, presented in 
admirable form to the sixteenth annual meeting of the Association 
of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Southern States in 1910, 
is here reproduced in condensed form with omission of the compre- 
hensive detailed bibliographical data. 

I. Prevailing Methods of Admission to College. 

(A) By examination— 

(1) Conducted by the individual institution, e. g., Yale, Harvard. 

(2) Conducted by the institution and its affiliated schools jointly, e. g., Chicago. 

(3) Conducted by a cooperative board, e. g., the College Entrance Examination 
Board. 

(4) Conducted by the State, e. g., the New York State Education Department. 

(B) By certificate — 

(1) From the schools approved by the individual institution, (a) without personal 
inspection of the schools by an officer of the institution (early method and unsatis- 
factory), e. g., Amherst, Williams, Cornell; (6) with inspection of the schools by 
officers of the college, e. g., the State universities of Michigan, California, Wisconsin, 
Illinois, Missouri, and Texas. 

(2) From schools approved by a collective agency, (a) without inspection of the 
school by an official agent, e. g., the new College Entrance Certificate Board; (6) with 
inspection of the schools by an official agent, e. g., the commission on accredited 
schools of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. 

(3) From schools approved by a State agency, e. g., Minnesota. 

(4) But no method of admission by certificate entirely eliminates the use of en- 
trance examinations by the individual colleges for (a) candidates prepared by irreg- 
ular or special methods; (6) candidates prepared by unaccredited schools; (c) candi- 
dates from accredited schools who do not come up to the certificate requirements. 

Query: Under what circumstances is it proper that a college should admit studenta 
coming within this class to its examinations? 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 37 

II. Rationale of the Methods of Admission. 

(A) Historically, admission by examination is a system coeval with the universities 
themselves. 

(1) It was evidently intended to determine fitness to profit by university instruc- 
tion. Varying with time, place, and circumstances, examinations for entrance were 
more or less formal and arbitrary, more or less severe and thorough, more or less well 
contrived to eliminate the unfit and admit the desirable students. 

(2) Within the last 30 years the purpose not only to determine fitness but to raise 
progressively the standard of preparation and to secure imiformity of requirements 
among institutions has become a conspicuous feature in the administration of the 
system of entrance examination by such institutions as Harvard and Yale and such 
organizations as the College Entrance Examination Board of the Association of Colleges 
and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland, and similar institutions 
and bodies. 

(B) But as the use of examinations grew more thorough and more definite in purpose, 
and they were more intelligently applied, the number of cases accumulated in which 
it was plain to see that the result was arbitrary and unintelligent and that teachers and 
candidates were resorting to educationally unsound methods of preparing for the test. 
This led some to repudiate examination by the institution or the board for entrance 
and to advocate the substitution of the opinion of the teacher who had prepared them, 
not however without the specification of certain criteria by which his judgment could 
be controlled and tested. 

(1) The method of admission by certificate is effective, at least when well controlled, 
in eliminating the unprepared and in developing the standards of secondary school 
work. 

(2) The method of admission by certificate promotes an increase in attendance, 
(a) It eliminates the formal entrance examination — always extra effort of very consid- 
erable proportions and generally looked upon as a great bugbear. (6) The articulating 
of the secondary schools with the colleges removes friction in the progress of the student, 
thus facilitating his progress, (c) Interest in going on to college is aroused, and par- 
ticularly interest in going to that college whither many school friends in upper classes 
go on graduation and to which he can go so easily, {d) But it also gives an advantage 
in the obtaining of students to any college using it over another college maintaining 
the examination system; and among colleges using the system to the one applying it 
least exactingly. 

(C) Now, it is altogether too apparent that, for the past several decades at least, col- 
leges have been laying great importance upon an increase in attendance. Accord- 
ingly, it has followed that college authorities are approaching the question of the 
methods of admission from two mutually conflicting standpoints: 

(1) The improvement of the college standards, by eliminating the unfit and raising 
progressively the requirements for entrance. 

(2) The increase in attendance, (a) "Bluntly stated, all the colleges are so anxious 
to get students that no system is lived up to." (6) Only rare instances occur of the 
opposite charge that colleges discriminate against the candidate of merely average 
ability. 

(D) Finally, a synthetical study of the educational field has made prominent the 
idea of the relation of universities (an aggregate including professional departments, 
graduate schools, and a collegiate department), colleges, secondary schools, and 
elementary schools (whether private or pxiblic) in one comprehensive system; with 
approximate conformity to a standard within each grade and an articulation of each 
grade with those next to it on either side. 

This brings to the surface the idea of admission requirements (or high-school gradua- 
tion requirements) as an agency for standardizing the school in the system and not 
merely for the service of a particular college. The idea is of a standardizing agency 



38 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

outside of and above the school, but the idea is incompletely worked out in any one 
system. 

(1) Note the general movement to standardize colleges and collegiate departments 
of universities by establishing uniform entrance requirements. 

Note that thus far the standard has been applied to the requirements for entrance to 
college rather than to the requirements for graduation. 

(2) Note, especially in the States outside of the New England and the Middle States, 
the emerging of the State university as the head of the system. 

(3) Note the efforts of State universities to develop, standardize, and articulate the 
high schools of the State (both public and private). Distinguish between the func- 
tion of the college (State or private) to develop the schools as feeders and the function, 
especially of State universities, to develop schools as parts of a system of general 
public instruction. 

(4) Note the efforts through State Departments of Education (New York and Minne- 
sota) to develop, standardize, and articulate the high schools with the colleges. 

******* 
The most effective systems are those which inspect at least as thoroughly as the 
universities of Michigan, California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, and Texas, and the 
State of Minnesota. This inspection involves: 

(1) A report on the ability of the community to support a school ; its willingness to do 
so; the buildings and equipment existing and in prospect; the ciuriculum; the nuni- 
ber of scholars; the number, preparation, and experience of the teachers. 

(2) Visits to the community and the school by the inspector to see that the ideas and 
the standards of the school board are at least as high as those which he is upholding, and 
to see that the work of the teachers in the classroom is good. 

(3) Examination of classes by questions prepared, or at least approved, by the 
respective university officers or other central authority and answers graded by the 
university officers or by other central authority, through a series of years or intermit- 
tently; or, the submission of examination papers, prepared by pupils and graded by 
teachers, on the different subjects to the university authorities, when weakness is 
suspected. 

The rivalry between the examination method of admission and some 
form of the certificate method became so great that in 1905 the topic 
was assigned in the department of higher education of the National 
Education Association, "Which is better, the western plan of admit- 
ting students to colleges and universities by certificates from duly 
inspected secondary schools, or the eastern method of admitting only 
by examinations conducted by representative boards or otherwise."^ 

It was thought that one system would slay the other. The so-called 
eastern system is, of course, the Colonial or English, and the so-called 
western system is the German or Continental system of certification. ^ 

1 Proc. Nat. Educ. Assoc, 1905, p. 501. 

2 The testimony is marshalled from the best representatives of the different sides: 
For the examination system— 

Sch. Rev., Vol. IX (Dec., 1901), pp. 619-25, XII, 757; Proc. Nat. Edue. Assoc, 1901, 240 fl. 
For uniform examinations and some form of certificate — 

Educ. Rev., Vol. XXVI (Dec, 1903), pp. 440-456; (contra) Educ. Rev., Vol. XXVin (Oct., 1904), pp. 
304 ff.; Educ. Rev., Vol. XXII (Mar., 1901), pp. 286-300; Educ. Rev., Vol. XXII (Oct., 1901), p. 291. 
For certificates — 

Sch. Rev., Vol. X (Oct., 1902), pp. 615-619; Proc. 5th an. meeting of the N. Cent. Assoc, of Col. and Sec. 
Schs., 1900, p. 11; Nat. Conf. of Sec. Educ. Northwestern Univ., 1903, p. 94; Prof. T. Gregory Foster in the 
second report of the Alfred F. Mosely Commission, pp. 115-118; M. E. Sadler, Educ. Rev., Vol. XXI (May, 
1901), pp. 497-515; Prof. A. S. WTiitney, Sch. Rev., Feb., 1903, and An. Rep. Dept. of Interior, 1902, Commis. 
Of Educ, Vol. I, p. 534; President Angell,An. Rep. Dept. of Interior, 1902, Commis. of Educ, Vol. I, p. 539. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES, 39 

Perhaps the latest illustration of the culmination of an accrediting 
system with a degree of uniformity carried into every detail is the 
adoption by the Iowa State Board of Education of the following 
scheme for accrediting and admission requirements for the State 
university, the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and 
the Teachers' College: ^ 

There shall be a board known as the Board on Secondary School Relations, com- 
posed of the inspector of secondary schools, chairman, and three other members 
chosen, one from the faculty of the college of liberal arts of the State university, one 
from the faculty of the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and one from 
the faculty of the State Teachers' College. The faculty representatives on this board 
shall be appointed by the presidents of the respective institutions and shall be ap- 
proved by the State board of education. 

The recommendations of this board shall be carried by its faculty members to their 
respective faculties and when approved by the three bodies they shall become oper- 
ative, subject to the general regulations of the State board of education. 

Full information concerning standards and processes of accrediting will be fur- 
nished by the inspector on request. A school desiring to be accredited shall file its 
application with the inspector. When requirements have been met, the work exam- 
ined and approved by the inspector, and the school is prepared to graduate students 
under conditions prescribed, it may, on vote of the board on secondary school rela- 
tions and approval of the faculties represented in that board, be recognized as an 
accredited school and assigned to the proper group. 

Provisions shall be made for a system of scholarship reports, whereby copies of the 
records of all freshman students entering the said institutions from Iowa secondary 
schools shall be assembled in the office of the inspector of schools, thus affording op- 
portunity for judging the degree of preparation for higher study gained by such stu- 
dents in the secondary schools. Private and denominational colleges desiring to 
cooperate in this shall be encouraged to do so. 

Schools seeking accredited relations may demonstrate their preparation for such 
recognition both by meeting the standards, as determined by careful, sympathetic 
inspection, and by the ability of their graduates to pass the required entrance exam- 
inations. 

Graduates of all nonaccredited high schools will be expected to pass the required 
entrance examinations on entering 4-year courses of collegiate grade in the said in- 
stitutions. 

It is understood that recognition as an accredited school insures credit without 
examination for work properly certified only so far as such work meets the specific 
entrance requirements of the department, division, or college to which admission is 
sought. 

STANDARDS FOR ACCREDITING. 

The standards for accrediting are essentially the same as those which have prevailed 
in Iowa for many years. 

The course of study shall require of each pupil not more than 4 recitations daily, 
and shall rest upon an elementaiy course of not less than 8 years of 36 weeks each in 
length. 

The number of daily periods of classroom instruction given by any one teacher 
shall not exceed 7, each to extend over at least 40 minutes. Fewer periods would be 
productive of a higher grade of scholarship. 

1 Iowa State Bo. of Educ, Bull. No. 1, 1911. 



40 PRESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 

If all the teachers of a school are graduates of standard colleges, the school will be 
regarded as meeting the requirements for scholastic attainment of teaching force. 
If one or more teachers are not such graduates, the board on secondary school rela- 
tions shall use its judgment in determining the sufficiency of the scholastic attainment 
of such teacher or teachers. 

Laboratory and library facilities and the character of textbooks shall be adequate 
to the needs of instruction in the subjects taught. 

The quality of instruction, the spirit of the school, and the conditions of the school 
buildings shall be such as to make possible satisfactory scholarship. 

Note: Academies, seminaries, normal schools, and other secondary schools meeting 
the conditions set forth above may be accredited on the same basis as high schools. 

GROUPING. 

For purposes of administration in accrediting, schools are divided into three groups: 

I. 

Schools meeting the general standards and the following specific standards in 
addition : 

1. At least 15 units for graduation. 

2. A course of study meeting the requirements for unconditioned entrance upon all 
the 4-year collegiate courses in the said institutions. 

3. The number of daily periods of classroom instruction given by any one teacher 
not to exceed 6, each to extend over at least 40 minutes in the clear. 

4. The number of pupils not to exceed an average of 30 for each teacher. 

5. A minimum teaching force of 4 teachers, exclusive of the superintendent. 

6. The quality of the teacher's instruction and the character of the student's schol- 
arship as determined both by inspection and by college records of graduates to be of 
notably high order. 

Schools not classified in group one, but meeting the general standards and the fol- 
lowing specific standards in addition: 

1. At least 15 units for graduation. 

2. A course of study meeting the requirements for unconditioned entrance upon 
liberal arts or general collegiate courses in the said institutions. 

3. Minimum high-school teaching force of 3 teachers, including the superintendent. 

4. Minimum teaching force in the elementary grades, 5. 

III. 

Any school not included in the preceding groups, meeting the general standards 
and the following specific standards in addition: 

1. At least 12 units for graduation. 

2. Minimum teaching force, including the principal, 2. 

3. Minimum teaching force in the elementary grades, 4. 

4. Time for which schools in Group III are accredited limited to 1 school year. 
Notes: 1. It is recommended that not more than 3 years' work be attempted unless 

the school is prepared to maintain a longer course on a thorough and scholarly basis. 
2. It is understood that gi-aduates from schools in Group III will present, either by 
examination or certificate, such additional credits as may be required by the insti- 
tution to which admission is sought. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE EXAMINING AND CERTIFICATE SYSTEMS OF 
ADMISSION. 

The examination system, which was universal for centuries, has 
been supplanted almost universally by some form of the certificate 



PRESENT STAKDARBS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 41 

system. The prominence, however, of the few institutions main- 
taining the examination system makes it still a living issue. Har- 
vard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Lafayette, and Bryn Mawr are 
defenders of the examination system. The fault that may be found 
with either system stimulates inquiry. The dangers of uniformity 
and of mechanical and impersonal administration of either the 
certificate or examination system and the virtues and defects have 
resulted in new plans for admission, the authors of which resent 
naming them as combinations of the certificate, of accrediting, and 
examination systems. They are in truth promising evolutions of 
elements at work in the two plans. The formidable set of intensive 
written examinations in many subjects, given to large numbers of 
students at once, banished the personal element as much as the 
reception of unseen candidates for admission upon a mere paper 
certificate. 

In 1908 Columbia moved to recover something of the personal 
contact between the professor and the entering student, with an 
opportunity for some recognition of individuality. Of the plan, 
President Butler said : ^ 

In assisting the student to make a transition from secondary school to college, it 
is in the highest degree important to bear in mind that the problem to be solved is a 
human problem. * * * Human beings are not to be measured by their attain- 
ments by the laws of mechanics. 

Columbia displaced the university committee on entrance exami- 
nations and on admission by a committee on undergraduate admis- 
sion, the chairman of which is a newly appointed officer whose 
specific duty it is to administer the affairs of the committee. The 
chairman was to confer with the secondary-school teachers and to 
acquaint himself especially with the character and proficiency of 
candidates for admission about whose qualifications for entrance 
there was any doubt. 

The committee on undergraduate admission give weight in esti- 
mating the results of the candidate's entrance examination to the 
record of his school performance. They have power to admit candi- 
dates who have not entirely completed the stated requirements for 
admission, but who in the judgment of the committee are regarded 
as qualified to pursue to advantage the work for which they desire 
to register. The case of each student admitted conditionally is 
considered individually upon its merits. 

A humane device, adopted much earlier generally, to relieve the 
candidates from the burden of many examinations taken at once, 
was the dividing of examinations mto preliminary and fuial, with 
a possibihty of at least a year or two between. The institutions, 
hke those in the New England Certificate Board, receiving candi- 

1 Columbia Univ., An. Reps., 1909, 22-23. 



42 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

dates upon certificates virtually accredited schools by the record 
made by the intrants in their college work, but lacked the knowledge 
of the schools given by inspection. The institutions accrediting 
schools upon inspection, admitting candidates on the certificate of 
their teachers, neglected at the beginning to test these schools by the 
work of intrants in the colleges. The earlier sharp division between 
high schools and colleges by which certain studies were labeled as 
high-school studies and others as college studies, a persistence of the 
time when Greek, Latin, and mathematics were the staple subjects 
for admission, wrought havoc and ill feeling when a wider range of 
subjects for admission prevailed. Of necessity some elementary dis- 
ciplinary subjects must be begun in college and the following of 
sequences carries some high-school subjects to an advanced stage., 
In short, the disciplinary period of education covers the six-year 
period of the high school and the first years of college. The enter- 
ing student seeking a liberal education of necessity, therefore, in 
accordance with his i)reparation must continue certain studies or 
elect others. 

To meet these conditions by a natural evolution, there has ap- 
peared what is, in the writer's judgment, a happy fruition of the 
various plans of admission in the establishment of so-called ''New 
plans" by Harvard and Chicago. Uniformity of admission require- 
ments has brought about at least a unity as to many subjects, a 
common terminology, or units of measurement, a unifying of sec- 
ondary and initial college education, an on-coming cooperation of 
secondary and collegiate teachers, and a recognition of the per- 
sonality of the student. The Harvard plan is set out in a letter to 
head masters of secondary schools as follows: 

NEW REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO HARVARD COLLEGE. 

Beginning in June, 1911, candidates for admission to Harvard College may apply 
for admission either by the plan used in the past or by the following alternative plan. 
This new plan does not take the place of the old plan; it jjrovides another method of 
admission for good scholars. 

To be admitted to Harvard College, a candidate — 

(1) Must present evidence of an approved school course satisfactorily completed; 

and 

(2) Must show in four examinations as explained below that his scholarship is 

of a satisfactory quality. 
School Record. A candidate must present to the committee on admission evidence 
of his secondary-school work in the form of an official detailed statement showing — 

(a) The subjects studied by him and the ground covered. 

(b) The amount of time devoted to each». 

(c) The quality of his work in each subject. 
To be approved, this statement must show — 

(a) That the candidate's secondary school course has extended over four years. 

(b) That his course has been concerned chiefly with languages, science, mathe- 

matics, and history, no one of which has been omitted. 



PRESENT STANDAEDS OF LIBEEAL AETS COLLEGES. 43 

(c) That two of the studies of his school program have been pursued beyond their 
elementary stages, i. e., to the stage required by the present advanced 
examinations of Harvard College or the equivalent examinations of the 
College Entrance Examination Board. 
The Examinations. If the official detailed statement presented by the candidate 
shows that he has satisfactorily completed an approved secondary school course, he 
may present himself for examinations in four subjects as follows: 
(a) English. 

(6) Latin, or, for candidates for the degree of S.B., French or German, 
(c) Mathematics, or physics, or chemistry. 

{d) Any subject (not already selected under (6) or (c)) from the following list — 

Greek, History, Physics, 

French, Mathematics, Chemistry. 

German, 

These four examinations must be taken at one time, either in June or in September. 

In announcing this plan, the committee on admission wish to point out that it differs 

in essential principles from the old plan now in use, and that therefore comparisons 

between the new requirements and the old will be misleading if any attempt is made 

to express the new requirements in the terms of the old. Under this new plan the 

college does not intend to prescribe in detail the school course of the boy who wishes 

to enter, either directly by naming and definiag subjects, or indirectly by an elaborate 

system of rating the studies of a school course in points or units. On the "contrary , 

the college accepts the judgment of a school as to a candidate's program, subject 

only to the general limitations stated above. It is not necessary, therefore, for a 

school to fit a candidate's course to detailed definitions of subjects. A good student 

who has had a rationally planned course in a good school should have no difficulty in 

proving his fitness for admission, even though his decision to come to Harvard be made 

late in his last school year. Under the new plan every school maintaining the kind of 

com-se indicated will be free to work out its own system of education in its own way. 

The college, on its part, undertakes only to test the intellectual efficiency of the boy 

at the time of his graduation from school. For this reason the examinations can not 

be divided. 

A second important difference between the new requirements and the old is the 
emphasis put in the college examinations upon quality of work. The new plan con- 
templates examinations different from those now used with respect both to their 
■character and the method in which they will be administered. It is hoped to secure 
a type of examination which shall be adapted to various methods of teaching, and 
which shall contain questions sufficient in number and character to permit each 
student to reveal the full amount and quality of his attainment. In administering 
examinations under this plan the committee will always consider examinations in 
connection with school records, and will endeavor to see not whether a candidate has 
"done a certain prescribed amount of work in a certain way, but whether the general 
quality of the candidate's scholarship is satisfactory. If a candidate is admitted, he 
will be admitted without conditions; if he is refused admission, no credit will be 
given for examinations in the separate subjects in which he may show proficiency, 
and the refusal will mean that his school record and his college tests do not show that 
he has the scholarship which makes his admission to Harvard College desirable. 

The admission of a candidate under this plan, therefore, depends upon good scholar- 
ship as shown in two ways — in his school work and in his college tests. He can not 
secure admission by scoring points or by working up examinations one or two at a 
time. He must have done good work in his school according to the testimony of his 
teachers, and he must meet successfully college tests at the time when he is ready to 
enter. 



44 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

In introducing this plan, which departs considerably from schemes of admission 
now ia general use, the college is already aware of various grave difficulties. It will 
doubtless be difficult to prepare a type of examination paper sufficiently flexible to 
fit various methods of instruction in various parts of the country, and to enable all 
candidates to exhibit the full amount and quality of their attainments. To accom- 
plish this end the committee on admission are authorized to advise with school- 
teachers in regard to the preparation of papers and the methods and standards of 
marking; and they confidently hope for the cooperation of schools in working out a 
plan which they believe will serve the common interests of both schools and colleges. 

While the new plan of Harvard was formulated only a few months 
before the June examinations in 1911, the reports indicate that the 
geographical distribution of applicants, which was one of the chief 
objects of the plan, was highly encouraging to the Harvard authori- 
ties. In June and September 185 applications were made; 46 were 
rejected because of defective school records. Of the 139 who were 
allowed to take the examinations prescribed by the plan, 83 were 
admitted and 56, or 40.2 per cent, were rejected. Of those who 
presented themselves under the old plan, 17.1 per cent were rejected 
and 8.1, per cent of the June candidates did not complete their exami- 
nations in September. Twelve States were represented under the 
new plan, which had no boys admitted under the old plan. The 
percentages of students admitted under the two plans in June and 
September, with regard to the schools from which they came, were 
as follows ^ : 



students prepared in— 


Under old 
plan. 


Under new 
plan. 


Massachusetts 


Per cent. 
72 
85 
8.5 
4.5 


Per cent. 
41 


New England 


47 






Schools west of the Alleghanies 


21 







THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PLAN. 

Desiring to cooperate more effectively with the secondary schools, the University 
of Chicago has introduced essential modifications into its entrance requirements. 
These modifications are herewith set forth. In making the changes the university 
has had several distinct principles in mind, the more important of which may be 
briefly stated as follows: 

Heretofore the university has admitted students from approved schools without 
examination. The schools were approved on the basis of inspection by a university 
officer. This practice will be continued. Schools not already on this list will, at 
their request, be inspected, and if approved will be put upon the list. The retention 
of the schools upon the list will thereafter depend upon the records made by the 
students sent to the university from the schools. It is intended to keep the school 
principals accurately and frequently informed of the records made by their students. 
It is also contemplated that, so far as possible, representatives of the schools may from 
time to time come to the university and visit those classes which continue most 
directly the work done in the schools. It is hoped in this way to secure a more 
intelligent cooperation than has hitherto been possible. 

' Repts. of Pres. and Treas. of Harvard College. 1910-11, pp. 7-8. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 45 

The university recognizes the obligations wliicli the higli schools are under to serve 
their own communities in the most efficient possible way without primary regard to 
college-entrance requirements. It therefore desires to render as flexible as possible 
the conditions under which students may come to the university, and it proposes to 
set up only such requirements as seem indispensable to enable the university to 
continue with advantage the educational work begun in the schools. With this 
principle in mind, the university faculty has replaced the former schedule of require- 
ments, designating a considerable number of specific subjects in which the student 
must have been prepared, with a plan which, save for a requirement in English, lays 
emphasis not so much upon specific subject matter as upon a certain amount of con- 
centrated and continuous work in subjects selected by the students, or the school, 
from among the standard academic subjects taught in all high schools. The quantity 
of the work required is specified in the paragraphs below. The quality of the work 
the university expects to test by the record of the student after he comes to the uni- 
versity. 

It is believed that sufficient flexibility has been introduced (1) to permit the schools 
to meet every reasonable demand of their own communities in the arrangement of 
their curricula, (2) to enable the student to enter college even though he decides late 
in his course to do so, and at the same time (3) to make it justifiable for the university 
rigidly to require of each student a full 15 units of entrance work. There will con- 
sequently be no admissions with condition under the new plan. * * * 

Entrance requirements. 

Students applying for entrance to the University of Chicago present by certificate 
from approved schools or by examination 15 units of entrance credits. Among these 
must be 3 units of English and in addition 1 principal group of 3 or more units, and at 
least 1 secondary group of 2 or more units. These additional groups may be selected 
from among the following subjects: 

1. Ancient languages (Greek and Latin), it being understood that to make a group 
of 2 or 3 imits the work must be offered in a single language. 

2. Modem langtiages other than English; to make a group of 2 or of 3 units the work 
must be offered in a single language as under group 1. 

3. Ancient history, mediaeval and modem history, English history. United States 
history, civics, economics. 

4. Mathematics. 

5. Physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, general biology, physiology, physiography, 
general astronomy. 

In group 5 not less than 1 unit may be offered in either physics or chemistry. Any 
combination of the subjects within each group is permitted. 

Of the 15 units offered for entrance at least 7 must be selected from the subjects in 
groups 1 to 5. Not less than one-half unit may be offered in any subject. 

The remaining 5 units may be selected from any subjects for which credit toward 
graduation is given by the approved school from which the student receives his 
diploma, but Greek, Latin, French, German (or any language other than English), 
mathematics, physics, and chemistry, if offered, but not as above under 1 and 5, must 
each consist of at least 1 unit. Latin may not be continued in college unless at least 
2 units be offered. 

of entrance requirements. 



Three units of English. 
Three or more units in a single group, 1-5. 
Two or more units in another single group, 1-5. 
Two units in subjects selected from any of the groups 1-5. 
(Total: Ten imits in English and groups 1-5.) 



46 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Five units selected from any subjects accepted by an approved school for its 
diploma. 
Not less than one-half unit will be accepted in any subject. Entrance with con- 
ditions not permitted. 

The most striking change m this scheme, says Prof. Angell,^ is found 
in the substitution of certam specifications regardmg the amount of 
work which a student must brmg to the university as contradis- 
tinguished from the particular subjects in which the credits must 
be offered. The quality of the work is to be tested chiefly by the 
college record of the student. The demand is for a certain amount 
of concentrated and continuous work in subjects selected by the 
student, or b}^ the school, from among the standard academic sub- 
jects taught in all high schools. The one stipulated subject which 
must be i)resented is English, and this is required on the ground of 
its unique relation to all other subjects in the curriculum. 

The university is confident that such freedom in admission will in no way impair 
the standard of its degrees, because for several years a rigid method of grading has been 
in force, by which inelKcient students are inevitably eliminated very early in the 
course. 

The first tw(j years of the college course are designed to articulate in the most inti- 
mate way with the high-school course and to assure certain results by the end of the 
second year of college residence. 

To secure an effective correlation of the high-school and the college work, it is pro- 
vided that throughout the first year of his college residence the student shall pursue 
one sul)ject which he has pursued in the high school either for two or for three years 
or which he has pursued throughout the whole of the final year of his school course. 

In conjunction with the requirements for the ''continuation work" in the first 
year are those which extend over the first and second years. During this period two 
courses in English and one in public speaking must be taken. The student is also 
obligated so to an-ange his work that either in the high school or in the first two years 
of college he shall have completed the equivalent of two units in each of the following 
four groups of subjects: (1) Philosophy, history, social science; (2) modern language 
other than English; (3j mathematics; (4) science, physical or biological. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION. 

The requirements for graduation of the same colleges and uni- 
versities wliich were selected as representative with reference to re- 
quirements for admission are given as a basis from which to deduce 
prevalent standards.^ 

In general, a "semester hour," as used in the following require- 
ments, means one recitation, lecture, or laboratory period per week 
for one semester, or half year; 120 semester hours means 15 hours 
of recitations per week per year for 4 years. 

Albion College, Albion, Mich.: A. B. for 120 semester hours, plus 240 jjoints in 
accordance with the point system, E, excellent, 4; G, good, 3; F, fair, 2; P, passed, 0. 

1 Prof. J. R. Angell, in Science, XXXIII, 946 flf. (June 23, 19n). 

2 Unless otherwise stated, the catalogues of 1911-12 are used. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 47 

Elective system: Freshman and sophomore work in part required; in part elective 
on a restricted plan. 

Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.: A. B. in either of 2 groups: Language, literature, and 
arts; philosophy, social sciences, and history; B. S. for group in mathematics, physi- 
ology, and natiu-al sciences. Four years' course of 120 to 128 semester hours, with 
not less than 36 credits. Graduation in 3 or 3J years possible. 

Work is largely elective on the major and minor plan. Time is measured in semester 
hours. Credits are a measm-e of the quality of work done. Number of credits necessary 
to pass from one class to next higher: 8 in freshman, 10 in sophomore, 10 in junior, 10 
in senior; 14 semester hours required in freshman year. 

Boivdoin College, Brunstvick, Me.: A. B., with or without Greek; B. S., required 
major in either biology, chemistry, or physics. Major (6 com'ses), minor (4 courses). 
In freshman year English, French, or German, hygiene, required of all; in sopho- 
more, German; physical training required of all for 4 years. 

Work mainly elective. All must take 4 full courses each semester, besides work in 
hygiene and physical training. 

Carleton College, Northfield, Minn.: A. B. and B. S., 130 semester hours required, 
including 6 for physical education; 130 grade credits required. Group system: A. B. 
in (1) literature and language or (2) philosophy and history; B. S. in (3) science and 
mathematics. 

In 1st year, work required with certain options; in 2d year about one-half required; 
3d and 4th elective. Major of 20 hours in one subject above freshman year, minor of 
12 hours in one or two subjects. 

Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y.: A. B. and B. S., GO semester hours in addi- 
tion to freshman and sophomore work. Groups: (1) Language, literatm'e, and art; 
(2) mental and social science; (3) mathematics and natural science. 

In 1st year chiefly prescribed ; after that mainly elective, except 5 semester hours 
in psychology. Candidates must choose major of not less than 30 semester hours in a 
single subject or department, 20 semester hours in selected minor, 20 semester hours 
in unrelated minor. 

Cornell College, Iowa: A. B., B. S., and B. S. in engineering; 124 semester hours, 
of which 4 are in physical training. Three com-ses: Arts, science, engineering, each 
leading to its appropriate degree; 16 hours per week in 1st and 2d years; 15 in 3d 
and 4th. 

Electives, 1st year: Arts, 4 hours; science, 6-2; engineering, 5; for the upper 3 
years electives are 40, 36-40, and 36, respectively. 

Grinnell College, Grinnell, Iowa: A. B. and B. S.; 15 to 16 hours per week; 120 
semester hours. Not the aim of ' ' the group system to secure early specialization. ' ' 

Branches required of all cover about 40 semester hours; then a major of at least 
20 semester hours; a minor of at least 16 semester hours and about 44 semester hours 
elective. 

Lafayette College, Boston, Pa.: A. B., B. Ph., and B. S.; 16 hours per week required, 
or 128 semester hours. 1st and 2d years prescribed; 3d and 4th half prescribed and 
half elective. Technical com-ses prescribed throughout. 

Pomona College, Claremont, Cal.: A. B., B. S.; 124 semester hours; 16 to 18 hours 
in 1st year, 16 in 2d, and 15 in 3d and 4th; 24 "credits" required for promotion to 
sophomore; 54 to junior; 87 to senior; 120 for graduation; 240 cum laude; 292 magna 
cum laude; 316 summa cum laude. 

In freshman and sophomore years, requirements in English, French, or German, 
history, mathematics, physical culture. In other years elective within groups. 

Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.: A. B., Litt. B., and B. Sc. ; 4 years. Studies 
of freshman year, most of sophomore, and certain subjects of junior and senior years 
' ' prescribed for all candidates. ' ' 



48 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Tulane University, New Orleans, La.: A. B. and B. S. Three coiu'ses, classical, 
literary, and scientific; 126 semester hours, 17 in freshman, 17 in sophomore, and 
15 in each of other two, B. S. freshman 20, sophomore 21. Professional work in law 
may be completed with academic degree in 6 years; in medicine in 7. 

Freshman and sophomore years nearly all prescribed for all courses; junior and 

senior, elective. Junior and senior, 30 hours wholly elective in classical course, 21 

hours elective, plus 9 in one group in literary, 30 hours except continuation of one 

science to a total of 3 years and a second science to a total of 2 years in scientific. 

Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.: A. B., B. S.; about 120 semester hours. 

Elective: In sophomore year, 3 hours; in junior, 9 hours; and all of senior; not more 
than 4 coiu-ses in one subject may be offered; graduate work may be taken; also in 
biblical, law, engineering, and medical departments. 

Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind.: A. B.; 188 hours of college work (equal to 
about 126 semester hours), in addition to physical culture. College year divided 
into 3 terms; and 4 weekly recitations through 3 terms give a credit of 12 hours 
(8 semester hom-s); 104 hours prescribed in English, foreign language, history, or 
economics, mathematics, science, physiology, physical culture. 

Elective work: Eighty-four hours, including professional studies. An option is 
offered of 3 years of prescribed work as above, with the 4th year spent at an approved 
professional or technical school. 

Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.: Semester horns, 124 " and a grade above D 
in at least one-half the number of hours required for graduation." Freshman year 
subjects prescribed according to the admission group in which the student entered. 
Eleven major groups, each consisting of sophomore introductory course, three pre- 
scribed courses in junior and two advanced year courses in senior year, arranged in 
three divisions: (1) Language, (2) philosophy (including art, economics, govern- 
ment, and history), and (3) science (including mathematics). 

After freshman year all courses are elective. Major of at least 15 semester hours. 

In 1911 the college announced an elaborate application of the principle of pre- 
requisites for admission to other courses. 

University of California, Berkeley, Cal.: Course divided at end of sophomoie year 
into lower and upper division and is marked by junior certificate. Work for which is 
largely prescribed. For work in upper division: Beading knowledge of French 
and geography; 36 units of work in major courses, 15 of which must be in one depart- 
ment. For junior certificate there is required 64 units of university work (same as 
semester hours), in addition to certain work in English, and 45 units required for 
admission, making 109 units. The 64 units may be done in 2 years. 

In upper division, requirements are normally 60 units in letters, social science, 
natural science, and commerce colleges (may be reduced to 51), and 93 to 96 in col- 
leges of chemistry and engineering. Extra credits for junior certificate may effect 
reduction. Two years' residence. 

Total units required for degree, exclusive of matriculation: In college of letters, 
social science, natmal science, agriculture, 124 units; in commerce, 129; architecture, 
125; 5 years' couise in mechanics, mining and civU engineering, chemistry, 166; for 
4 years' course in same, 150. 

Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C: A. B., B. S., L. H. B. (bachelor 
of letters), and Ph. B.; 4 years, 32 weeks each, or 120 semester hours. 

For bachelor's degree: 1st year, prescribed or 3 electives; 2d year, 3 or 4 or 6 
electives; 3d year, 6; 4th year, 6 or 11. In school of sciences required studies are 
in religion and philosophy and at least 11 of 21 credits each year must be in school 
of sciences. 

For Ph. B. electives are same in number, except in 4th year, 6 instead of 11. 

University of Chicago, Chicago, III: A. B., Ph. B. (Lit.), and S. B. conferred 
when student has completed 36 majors and received 72 grade points. Title of Asso- 



PRESENT STANDARDS OP LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 49 

ciate when he has completed 18 majors with 32 grade points. Principal sequence 
of 9 majors required and secondary sequence of 6 majors. Departments 1-6 are 
philosophy, history, and social science; departments 13^14 are modern languages; 
department 17 is mathematics; departments 18-28 are science. A. B. conferred for 
work in Latin and Greek; Ph. B. for work in departments 1-16; S. B. in departments 
17-28. Department 17 (mathematics) will earn either Ph. B. or S. B. May elect 
from professional courses. 

Columbia University, New York, N. Y.: A. B., B. S.; 124 "points" or semester 
hours. Course for each half year must not exceed 19 nor fall under 12 points. " To be 
recommended for a degree a student must make at least 84 points in actual college 
residence, and of these at least 24 in Columbia College." 

Work is prescribed during first two years "when practicable. " Student must have 
completed "the equivalent of 3 years of sequential study, in courses aggregating at 
least 18 points," for A. B., in part in languages, history, and philosophy; for B. S., 
in part in science ; may elect graduation courses. 

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.: A. B., 120 semester hours, with extra work in 
physical culture, military science, and tactics; may get entrance credits; may do one 
of the eight terms in summer session of Cornell or elsewhere; must be in residence at 
least two terms. 

In Isfc and 2d years must take at least 60 hours, including 24 hours in English and 
history, foreign language, philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, 
physical geography, and biological science. 

Electives in 3d and 4th years withia 12 groups, in one of which he must do at least 
20 horn's' work; vocational coiirses also elective. 

Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.: B. A. and B. S.; must pass in 16 courses 
"together with such work in English as may be prescribed for him," making 17 or 17 J 
coiurses ; also must attain a grade of D in two-thirds of all work and in senior year 
pass in not less than 4 courses with grade above D. Certain summer courses may be 
counted or college studies may be anticipated before entering, but at least one year 
of residence necessary. The A. A. degree (associate in arts) is conferred upon non- 
resident students who have passed in extension courses the work necessary for A. B. 

Prescribed, 1st year, English, German, or French; elective, 3 or 4 other full courses. 
For 2d, 3d, 4th years English and reading knowledge of French or German required; 
elective, 4 full courses and may take up to a total of 6 prescribed and elective courses 
the year. 

Must take at least 6 coiu-ses in some one department or in one recognized field and 
"shall distribute at least 6 of his courses among the 3 general groups in which his chief 
work does not lie." 

University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, III.: A. B. and B. S. in engineering and 
agriculture; either first 3 or last year in residence; 130 semester hours. Second bache- 
lor's degree may be had for 30 semester hours extra. Limited amount of work toward 
A. B. given for courses in other colleges and schools of the university. 

Prescribed: Rhetoric, physical training, military science. A minimum of 8 hours 
in each of the following groups: English, foreign languages, social science, mathemat- 
ics and philosophy, natiu'al science. 

Must offer not less than 24 hours for major subjects, but not more than 40 hours in 
one subject may be counted. Enough credits from elective list to give the requii-ed 
130 semester hours. 

Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.: A. B. 4-year course of 183 hours (equal to 120 
semester hours). Must have at least one year of daily work in the major subject; 15 
hours credit may be obtained in the correspondence courses. 

Prescribed: 6 hours English, 3 hygiene, 30 language, 15 mathematics or physics, 15 
in some other science; 20 from history and political science, economics and social 
62400°— 13 4 



50 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

science, English literature, Greek literature in English translation, philosophy, edu- 
cation, fine arts, history of English language. 

All A. B. graduates must select a major subject of from 45 to 60 hours. Major and 
collateral work must count up to 75 hours. For freshman: Requh-ed, 1 hour hygiene 
and physical training, 2 hours English; elective, 13 hours within certain rules. 

State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa: B. A., B. S.; 120 semester hoiu"s without 
credits for hygiene, military drill and hygiene; 125 semester hours with credits for 
these; 7 years required for combined course in medicine or homeopathic medicine 
and liberal arts; 6 years for B. S. in medicine or homeopathic medicine or dentistry 
and liberal arts; law may be taken as part of liberal arts course. 

Required: 1st year, 7 to 9 hours; 2d, 4 hours. Elective: 1st year, 8 to 10 hours; 
2d, 11 to 13 hours; 3d and 4th, 14 to 16 hours. Requirements both years are in Eng- 
lish and foreign languages, military drill or physical training and hygiene. 

Major study of 24 semester hours required, no part of which is to be taken in 1st year 
and 12 semester hours in each of two groups in which major does not fall. 

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.: A. B. for all courses and the degree 
signifies "in the case of every recipient such instruction in ancient and modern 
languages, in mathematics, in the physical and natural sciences, in literature, phil- 
osophy, and history, as is believed to be essential to a liberal education." Twenty 
courses of 3 hours per week each. The equivalent of 120 semester hours. Last year 
at least must be in residence. 

Courses 1st and 2d years prescribed ; in 3d and 4th years only one or two studies pre- 
scribed; no Latin or Greek required. Standard course, 3 hours per week through the 
year. 

Twenty courses required for graduation and no combination accepted which does 
not include three courses in one subject and two in another. Nineteen courses 
accepted of student whose average is not less than 9 for work of his 3d year and with 
no work below 7. 

Twelve courses required of all candidates; eight elective in accord with the group 
system. Groups: Ancient languages; modern languages, including English; history 
and political science; mathematics and physics; chemistry, biology, and geology. 

Kansas University, Laurence, Kans.: A. B., 120 semester hours. May elect half of 
senior work in law or all in medicine. Work divided into 9 groups. Freshmen and 
sophomores must complete 60 hours, by taking at least 5 hours in each of 6 groups and 
not more than 20 hours in one department. All freshmen must take 5 hours of rhetoric , 
hygiene, and work in gymnasium. 

Major course must consist of 30 to 60 hours in one group, 20 to 40 of which must be 
in one department. Not more than 30 hours elective work may be taken in one group. 

Leland Stanford University, University, Cal.: A. B., 120 "units" (120 semester 
hours) ; degree is conferred when requirements are met, without regard to the time 
spent, except that at least 30 units (including last 15) must be completed in this 
university. 

English composition prescribed for 1st year undergraduates who do not satisfy 
matriculation test, otherwise work is entirely elective. 

Major subject coimting not more than 40 units; as a general principle at least 60 
imits must be taken outside of major, but in applied science the major department may 
prescribe so much of the entire 120 as "it shall deem essential." 

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.: A. B. and B. S., 120 hours credit (120 
semester hours), together with 135 grade points; residence of at least one academic 
year required. Work of one-half semester may be done in summer sessions. 

Rhetoric required of all; other work all elective. If 60 hours have been earned in 
mathematics and the physical and biological sciences, B. S. may be conferred instead 
of A. B. 



PEESElsrT STANDARDS OF LIBEEAL AETS COLLEGES. 51 

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.: A. B., 126 credits (i. e., 126 semester 
hours) in addition to required exercises in drill, gymnasium, and physical training. 
B. S. at end of 4 years, and M. D. at end of 7; A. B. in 4 and M. D. ia 8. A. B. 
in 4 years and D. D. S. at end of 6 years; 6 years in arts and law gives A. B. and 
LL. B. 

Must secure a grade of "good" on at least 60 credits. Must complete a major (i. e., 
IS credits) and 4 minors (i. e., 12 credits) and at least 1 of the 5 subjects must be chosen 
from each of the follo%ving groups: (1) English and foreign languages; (2) biology, 
astronomy, botany, chemistry, geology, mineralogy, physics; (3) economics and 
political science, history, mathematics, philosophy, sociology, and anthropology. 

1st year, 3 hours rhetoric required. Elective: 1st year, 11-14 hours. All in other 
years must have major and 4 minors. 

University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.: A. B., 120 semester hours; may offer in part 
"work done in the summer session" and "work done in any institution of good stand- 
ing" on certain com'ses. 

In 1st and 2d year 35 hours required in English, history, ancient languages, modem 
languages, mathematics, logic or psychology, physical science, and biological science, 
but sufficient entrance units may waive all. 

Otherwise elective, but must have one major (24 hours) and one minor (12 hours). 
May elect courses from colleges of agricultine, medicine, engineering, law, education, 
and joiumalism. 

University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb?'.: A. B. and B. S., 125 credit hours (125 
semester hoiu-s) ; students in absentia must do one-third more work than when in resi- 
dence. For B. S. must take major in science department and complete not less than 
60 hours in mathematics and natural science. 

Required: Rhetoric, 4 hom-s; military science, 4 hours. Must complete (40 to 48 
hoiu-s) 6 out of 8 groups and have major of 24 to 40. Not more than 20 per cent of 
work below grade of 70 per cent is credited on requirements for graduation. 

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.: A. B., B. S., B. S. in Economics, 
Chemistry, Architecture, Civil engineering, Chemical engineering. Mechanical 
engineering, Electrical engineering, or Biology. Sixty-four imits of work (i. e., 128 
semester hoiu's) ; may be completed in 3, 4, or 5 years, at option of student. May take 
8 units in medicine. May combine courses in arts and architectiu-e so as to take A. B. 
in 4 years and bachelor's degree in arcliitecture at end of 6th year. For A. B., ele- 
mentary Latin and Greek requned for admission. 

Required: 26 units in English, foreign languages, history, logic and ethics, mathe- 
matics, physics, physical education, chemistry. 

Work elective in accord with group system up to 18 units; remaining 20 imits are 
free electives. 

Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.: A. B., Greek and Latin freshman and sopho- 
more years required; Litt. B., B. S. Four years with 16 to 17 hours work per year. 

Freshman work required, 16 hom-s; sophomore, in part elective; jimior and senior 
elective but "largely conditioned by his selection of the electives in the sophomore 
year"; junior must choose a department (1 of the 11 into which work is di^dded); 
must take 3 of his 5 courses in this department, 1 outside and 1 is for free election. 
Senior must continue work of junior year. Emphasizes system of "prerequisites for 
registration for higher courses" and the "preceptorial system." 

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.: B. A. and B. S. given for completion of 13 
courses (a course equals 3 hom-s per week through the year), 60 "session hours,"- 
i. e., 120 semester hom-s. Time required, usually 4 years, of which at least 1 year in 
residence with at least 3 courses. May elect courses in law, medicine, or engineer- 
ing. With the vocational degree of B. S. the school in which the principal work 
has been done is mentioned on the diploma, as B. S. in chemistry. 



52 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Six groups: (1) Languages; (2) mathematical science; (3) natural science; (4) social 
science; (5) English; (6) philosophical science. Latin and Greek required for B. A. 
Otherwise wide selection; must select a "major or principal school." 

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.: A. B., B. S., Ph. B., 128 credits (128 semester 
hours), including 8 credits for requii'ed work in gymnastics and military drill (4 for 
women, instead of 8). Candidates for A. B. may elect up to 20 credits in college of 
mechanics and engineering, agriculture, and from school of law, pharmacy, commerce, 
music, home economics, or State library school. Summer school work earns 6 credits. 

Required: English, 6 credits; language, 16 credits; and 2 out of natural science (10 
credits), mathematics (6 credits), history (6 credits). 

Must select major study, which with thesis counts 20 to 40 credits. All other work 
elective but not more than 40 credits in all in 1 department. 

Yale University, New Haven, Conn.: A. B., 60 year hoiu-s, equivalent of 120 semester 
hours. Extra hoiu-s in addition to the 120 semester hours may be necessary by 
absence. Work may be completed in 3 years. ' 

Mam divisions: (1) Language, literature, and arts; (2) mathematics and the physical 
and natural sciences; (3) philosophy, education, history, and social science, making in 
all 25 groups. 

Major (12 hours) and minors (5 hours or more); every candidate must complete 
before graduation a major and a minor in some one of the 3 main divisions and a 
minor in each of the other 2 main divisions. All freslunen required to take 5 of 
certain 3-hour listed courses; 3 must be in continuation of subjects offered for admission. 

DEPARTMENTS OR SCHOOLS OF EDUCATION IN LIBERAL, ARTS COLLEGES. 

Many of the universities and colleges carry in the bosom of the 
college of liberal arts a department or an, organized school of educa- 
tion. As standards for these schools, as well as for a developed 
teachers' college, the following represents the general usage : ^ 

Already the departments of education in most of the institutions in the Middle 
West require the completion of a prescribed course, which includes work in the 
history and the jahilosophy of education, in educational and genetic psychology, 
secondary-school management and teaching, and in observation and practice. 

As Dean Russell has stated: 

The lowest requirements which can consistently make for such a diploma or cer- 
tificate are as follows: 

(a) The candidate must be a college graduate, at least when he receives the diploma 
if not when entering upon the course, or have the equivalent of a college education. 

(6) He must satisfactorily complete courses (1) in the history of education; (2) in 
the philosophy of education; (3) in school economy, especially school hygiene — an 
allotment, say, of 8 hours a week throughout 1 year. 

(c) As evidence of special knowledge in each suljject in which a diploma is sought, 
the candidate should be alile to show the equivalent of at least 3 years' collegiate 
study of the subject * * *. Such a course may very properly be conducted 
wholly or in part by the university department, which is responsible for the academic 
training in subject matter. 

{d) The candidate must be given opportunity to observe good teaching, study in 
its method under guidance, and finally give instruction under normal conditions 
long enough to demonstrate his ability to teach. 

The lesson from German experience is that to liberal culture you must add special 
scholarship, and to special scholarship professional knowledge, and to professional 
knowledge teaching skill. 

For a vindication of combmed courses, with the arguments pro and 
con, see ''Combined Courses in Academic and Professional Work. 

1 Nat. Educ. Assoc. Rep. of Com. of 17 on Prof. Prep, of High Sch. Teachers, July; 1907, pp. 580-^1. 



PRESEKT STANDAEDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 53 

Report from a committee of Indiana University appointed under 
instructions from the Association of American Universities," ^ pre- 
sented at the annual meeting of the association, 1910. 

THE QUALITATIVE ELEMENT IN STANDARDS, DISTINCTIONS, AND 
GRADES. 

Gradually we are approximating a more exact system of stand- 
ardizing by an induction from data gathered representing facts and 
by a recognition of the importance of ratios instead of using, as 
was at first necessary, gross objective standards. This tendency is 
well illustrated in the following resolutions by a committee, Prof. 
E. L. Thorndike, chairman, appointed to collect facts in section L — 
education — of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science. 2 

Resolved, That samples of the facts concerning the number of students taught by 
one instructor be sent to the colleges and universities on the list of the United States 
Bureau of Education. 

Resolved, That those in charge of collegiate instruction in each of these institutions 
be requested to report in print or to this committee any facts concerning the relation 
of the size of class to efficiency in teaching, with special reference to the following 
questions: 

1. Is not the number of students taught at one time by a single individual in many 
college courses so great as to reduce that individual's knowledge of the attitude, 
preparation, difficulties, errors, and achievements of his students to almost zero? 

2. Is not the number of students taught at one time by a single individual in many 
college courses so small as to involve an enormous waste of the instructor's time and 
an improper distribution of the appropriations for teaching? 

3. Other things being equal, should not the teaching of more than 40 college students 
at one time by one person be avoided? Should not any department have reasons of 
weight for any such case? 

4. Other things being equal, should not the use of a quarter or more of a, professor's 
teaching hoius for a year for the instruction of fewer than 10 students in one under- 
graduate course, counting one-twentieth or less of the degree's total requirement, be 
avoided? Should not any department have reasons of weight for any such case? 

5. Should not the traditional method of having the ratio which the number of class 
meetings is to the number of "points" credit the same, regardless of whether the class 
enrollment is 1, 5, 10, 20, or 100, be abandoned in many of the undergraduate courses 
enrolling less than 10 students? 

6. When in a college course given aimually the number of students is less than 6, 
should not the course be offered only once in 2 years, except for reasons of weight? 

Resolved, That those in charge of collegiate education in the colleges and univer- 
sities on the list of the United States Bureau of Education be requested to consider 
the advisability of reporting for 1910, and once in every 10 years thereafter, a detailed 
statement of the work done for the bachelor's degi-ee by each member of the gradu- 
ating class or by each of 100 students chosen at random from it? 

1 See also Science, Oct. 22, 1909, pp. 538-48, Dean Christian's objections, and a reply by Prof. Dodson, 
Science, Nov. 19, 1909, pp. 709-11; also Science, Nov. 12, 1909, p. 679, quotation from Harvard bulletin; 
also Proc. of 10th annual meeting of Assoc. Amer. Univ., pp. 41-49, arguments of President Eliot against 
combined courses, and for them President Schurman, Dean Vaughan, and President Northrop. 

2 Science, Apr. 15, 1910, p. 595. 



54 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Consciously or unconsciously impressed by the dangers of a quan- 
titative and mechanical requirement for graduation and even for 
admission, many of the colleges are attempting to care for the quali- 
tative requirements. Some evaluate courses of study by giving 
them grades, as they are more or less elementary in character or done 
by more advanced classes of students. Some form of marking sys- 
tem is tried, elimmating, stimulating, or giving rank, and provisions 
of extra work to students — provisions with notable exceptions m an 
institution like Leland Stanford. Provisions for extra work, by 
which the time for graduation may be shortened, have become 
general. 

Honors or distinctions recognize quality as well as quantity of 
work. In form the final honors generally are traditional under the 
terms of the older American college commencement parts, of oration, 
dissertation, and disquisition, wliich evidently reflect the German 
university distmctions of summa cum laude, Tnagna cum laude, and 
cum laude. There is an evident reaction against the doctrinaires 
who would abolish all grades and distmctions. In addition to meet- 
ing the qualitative demands of scholarship, the influx of students 
and the opportunities of the elective system for "snaps" have 
brought a negative as well as a positive application of the marking 
system by wliich inferior students are eliminated from the college. 

The present practices, so far as the catalogues give information, 
are well shown by the regulations of the following institutions: 

DISTINCTIONS AND MARKING SYSTEMS IN TYPICAL COLLEGES AND 
UNIVERSITIES. 

Beloit: A degree cum laude, granted for 62 credits; magna cimi laude for 96 credits; 
siunma cum laude for 110 credits. These credits are earned in courses requiring 120 
to 128 semester hours. 

Botvdoin: Records marked on a scale of 10, but preserved in letters — A (9-10); 
B (8-9); C (7-8); D (6-7); E is below 6 and indicates a condition. 

Carleton: A (excellent); B (good); C (fair); D (poor); E (failure); I (incomplete); 
X (conditioned). Candidates for honors must not fall below C in any subject during 
their entire course; in the department in which honor is given a grade of A must be 
maintained throughout the major work. A degree cum laude granted for 55 grade 
credits; magna cum laude for 75 grade credits; summa cum laude for 85 grade credits. 

Cornell College: Has system of demerits under which suspension is the penalty 
for four demerits. 

Grinnell College: A (excellent); B (good); C (fair); D (poor); E (failure). For 
graduation must obtain C or over in one-half total number hours. 

Lafayette College: At commencement "the faculty awards such honors as it sees 
fit to those who are to receive degrees." These honors, ordinarily, are "a valedictory 
oration, a Latin salutatory, and other honorary orations and theses." 

Rutgers: Grading on scale of 100; a combination of three-fourths of c-lass work with 
one-fourth of examination work gives the term grade. A (90-100); B (80-89); C (70- 
79); D (60-69); E, F, G, H denote various conditions between failure to pass and 
failure. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OP LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 55 

Highest honors to students attaining an average grade of A and no single grade 
lower than B. High honor indicates average of B and no grade lower than C. Honors, 
average B. Special honors, in electives; and to students in the B. S. courses. Six 
commencement speakers chosen by grade in speaking and composition. 

Tula-ne University: Grades— A (95-100); B (90-94); C (80-89); D (70-78); E (defi- 
cient). 

Williams College: "Class honors" awarded each year to students in each class who 
have attained grade A in courses amounting to 24 semester hours in that year and 
have not fallen below B in any. ' ' Highest class honors " go to those who have attained 
A in all studies, provided they amount to 30 semester hours. 

"General final honors" to those who have attained A in at least half their studies 
and fallen below B in none. 

"Highest general final honors" to those who have attained A in all courses. 

" Final honors " awarded to student who has attained A in all subjects making up 
his major. 

All students must attain a grade above D in at least one-half the hours required. 

University of California: Entrance and undergraduate examinations graded into 
five divisions — 1st grade (marked excellence); 2d (thoroughly satisfactory); 3d 
(passed); 4th (reexamination required); 5th (failed). Grading is based on term work 
and examinations. 

Graduate students may be graded as above or merely marked as "passed" or "not 
passed" at option of instructor. 

Columbia: Entrance examinations are marked — P (passed); D (conditioned); 
F (failed). Undergraduate work is marked — A (excellent); B (good); C (fair); 
D (poor); F (failure). A, B, C, D, passed. 

Students divided into "candidates for a degree with honors" and "candidates for a 
degree." Passing the examinations with A in all three subjects entitles to degree 
"with highest honors;" 2 A's and a B entitle to degree "with high honors;" A and 
2 B's, "with honors." 

Cornell: The passing mark is 60 or over; 41-59 is a condition; below 41 is a failure. 

Harvard: In 1886 a new grading system was adopted: "In each of their courses 
students are now divided into five groups, A, B, C, D, E. Eis composed of those 
not passed. To graduate, a student must have passed in all his courses and have stood 
above D in at least one-fourth of his college work; and for the various grades of the 
degree, honors, honorable mention, etc., similar regulations are made in terms of 
A, B, C, etc., instead of in percentage as formerly. * * * 

Grades are considered in promoting from one class to another, and to be promoted 
the candidate must make a grade higher than D in a major part of his studies. "Hon- 
ors" and "highest honors" are offered as second-year honors in the classics. The 
degree "with distinction" is offered in three grades: Cum laude — distinction; magna 
cum laude — ^high distinction; summa cum- laude — highest distinction. A Commence- 
ment Part is assigned to every student recommended for a degree with distinction, an 
Oration to a candidate for a degree summa cum laude, a Dissertation to a candidate for 
a degree magna cmn laude, and a Disquisition to a candidate for a degree cum laude. 
The words Oration, Dissertation, and Disquisition indicate merely the grade of 
distinction in the degree, and do not imply differences in the nature of the Commence- 
ment Parts. 

Illinois: Preliminary honors are awarded for scholarship in first two years to not 
exceeding one-tenth membership of sophomore class. 

Final honors are assigned on graduation for scholarship in last two years to not more 
than one-tenth senior class. 

Special honors are assigned on graduation to "especially brilliant students" for 
advanced work of not less than 20 hours done before senior year and 30 hours done in 
that year, together with a thesis. 



66 PKBSENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Indiana: Grades— A (95-100); B (85-94); C (75-84); D (65-74); conditioned; failed. 

Final honors for excellence in scholarship are granted to a limited number of grad- 
uates (not exceeding one-tenth); honors are: "With distinction," "With high dis- 
tinction;" not granted for less than three years' work in residence. 

State University of Iowa: Grades — A (high distinction); B (superior work); C (av- 
erage work) ; D (work below average but above passing grade) ; E (a low passing mark) ; 
Cond. (conditioned); Fd. (failed). Student must balance hours graded E with an 
equal number marked B or A. 

Johns Hopkins: A student whose average in his studies for each of his last two years 
has not been less than 9, and who has not received a mark less than 7.5 for any of 
his courses during his last three years shall receive the degree with honor. 

Special students who have been in residence at least two years and who have com- 
pleted their work in a satisfactory manner may receive certificates stating the facts 
and signed by the president of the university. 

Minnesota: Grades — Excellent, good, passed, conditioned, failed. For graduation 
an average of "good" must be secured in at least 50 per cent of the courses; for pur- 
pose of computing this an "excellent" is held to balance a "passed," making an 
average of "good." Student deficient in more than one-half of his work loses class 
rank, and if conditioned or if he fails in 60 per cent is dropped. -- .. 

The "degree with distinction" is granted for special excellence in the major sub- . 
ject in one department only. 

Missouri: Grades — M, S, E, I, F. The grade of M means that the student ranks 
among the medium students, approximately 50 per cent. Above this grade are the 
following two: The grade of S means that the student ranks among those who are 
superior to the medium students. The grade of E means that the student is one of 
the few most excellent students. Below the grade of M are the following two: The 
grade of I means that the student ranks among those who are inferior to the medium 
students. The grade of F means that the student belongs among those ranking 
lowest. To secure S means that the student must show himself superior to 75 per cent 
of the students in that branch in the last few years. 

To encourage the best possible work, the faculties of the college of arts and science 
and of the school of education credit work in proportion to the grade received, thus 
enabling the ablest and most industrious students to graduate in three years. For 
each recitation hour for which the grade of Excellent is recorded the student will 
receive 30 per cent additional credit toward the total number required for gradua- 
tion. For each recitation hour for which the grade of Superior is recorded he will 
receive 15 per cent additional credit toward graduation. The faculty further recog- 
nizes that those students who are inferior to 75 in 100, but whose work is not estimated 
by the teacher as a complete failure, are entitled to some credit. Students will, 
therefore, be given four-fifths of the normal credit toward graduation for each recita- 
tion hour for which the grade of Inferior has been recorded. 

Nebraska: Grades above passing (70) are reported to the registrar in figures, either 
in straight percentages or in multiples of 5. Below passing the following are the 
markings: F (failure below 60); C (conditioned); I (incomplete); also A (withdrew in 
good standing); D (delinquent at time of withdrawal); W (withdrew without per- 
mission). Delinquents and absentees are reported each week. At middle of semester 
all students below passing grade are reported. 

Pennsylvania: Grades — d (distinguished); g (good); p (passed); n (not passed, student 
is entitled to a reexamination) ; f (failure, subject must be repeated in class). Awards 
senior and sophomore honors. 

Princeton: Grades are based on term examinations and classroom work and divide 
students into 5 groups: (1) Very high standing, not over 10 per cent; (2) high stand- 
ing, 20 per cent; (3) medimn standing, 35 per cent; (4) low standing, 25 per cent; 
(5) very low standing, 10 per cent. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 57 

The first and second general groups thus determined are the honor groups of the 
graduating class, and are designated magna cum laude and cum laude, respectively. 
The higher distinction of insigni cum laude and highest of summa cum laude, are re- 
served for very unusual excellence. Special honors in particular departments are 
also awarded. 

Virginia: The grades for passing in any course are as follows: In the college, the 
department of graduate studies, the department of engineering, and the department 
of agriculture, 75 per cent; in the department of medicine, 80 per cent; in the depart- 
ment of law, 83 per cent. Students who make less than 40 per cent are dropped; 
those making 40-65 per cent are put on probation and unless the grade is improved 
the next session are dropped. 

Wisconsin: Honors are given at graduation for special work of high order of excel- 
lence done in any department. Such honors will be voted by the faculty to those 
students whose graduation theses show exceptional excellence, and who have com- 
pleted with unusual success a long course of study in the department in which the 
thesis is presented. 

Yale: The passing mark is 2 on a scale of 0-4. Standing as indicated by letters is: 
A (3.30 or above); B (3-3.29); C (2.60-2.99); D (2.25-2.59). 

Warnings are sent out in November and March to all students who are below 2.25 
in their general standing or in any subject, and a student who has received such 
warning for his general standing or in 8 hours of classroom work is under the restriction 
of disqualification. A student whose average scholarship standing, or whose standing 
in courses aggregating 8 hours, for one-third of a year falls below 2 may be put on 
probation, or rated with a lower class, or both, or if a freshman or already rated with a 
lower class, may be permanently separated from his class. Other penalties for poor 
scholarship are exclusion from a course and removal from college. 

Junior and senior appointment lists, based on the work of the first half and the 
whole of the college course, respectively, and honor lists for the work of freshman 
and junior year are issued, and honors in special studies are conferred each year. 

DEFINITIONS OF A STANDARD COLLEGE. 

In addition to the commonly used definition of a college set out by 
the New York State statute and the Carnegie Foundation (see p. 27) 
the following definitions, which for the most part have been elabo- 
rated from it, indicate an approximation to one standard.^ 

The nucleus of the definition of a college appeared in the constitu- 
tion of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary 
Schools (adopted March, 1895) : 

Sec. 5. No college or university shall be eligible to membership whose requirements 
for admission represent less than 15 units of secondary work as defined by the Commis- 
sion on Accredited Schools. 

Sec. 6. No college or university shall be eligible to membershiji which confers the 
degree of doctor of philosophy or doctor of science, except after a period of 3 years of 
graduate study, not less than 2 of which shall be years of resident study, 1 of which 
shall be at the institution conferring the degree. 

Sec. 7. No secondary school shall be eligible to membership which does not provide 
15 units of secondary work as defined by the Commission on Accredited Schools. 

The subject of a standard college was discussed in extenso by the 
North Central Association in connection with the report of the com- 
mittee on accrediting colleges in 1908.^ 

■ North Gen. Assoc, 1907, pp. 30-37. 2 Proc, 1908, pp. 86-11-1. 



58 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Finally, in 1909, the association adopted the following college 
standards for admission to the association: ^ 

The standard American college is a college with a four years' curriculum with a 
tendency to differentiate its parts in such a way that the first two years are a continua- 
tion of, and a supplement to, the work of secondary instruction as given in the high 
school, while the last two years are shaped more and more distinctly in the direction 
of special, professional, or university instruction. For students who are not to enter 
professional or graduate schools, and for those who are willing to lay a broader founda- 
tion for their professions than is laid by those who specialize at the end of the sopho- 
more year in the university, the four years' college work may be treated as a unit. For 
those who have chosen their professions, the last two years in the best independent 
colleges should provide ample opportunities for training preliminary to the professions. 
The independent college may thus become a cooperative university college. 

2. The minimum scholastic requirement of all instructors shall be equivalent to 
graduation from a college belonging to this association, and graduate work equal at 
least to that required for a master's degree. Graduate study and training in research 
equivalent to that required for the Ph. D. degree is usually necessary, but an instruct- 
or's success is to be determined by the efficiency of his teaching and not by his research 
work. 

3. The college shall require for admission not less than 14 secondary units as defined 
by this association. 

4. The college shall require not less than 12 college units, or 120 semester hours, for 
graduation. 

5. The character of the curriculum, the efficiency of the instruction, the scientific 
spirit, the standard for regular degrees, the conservatism in granting honorary degrees, 
the tone of the institution shall be chief factors in determining eligibility. 

6. The college should be provided with adequate books in the library and labora- 
tory equipment to develop fully and illustrate each course taught. 

7. The number of hours of work given by each instructor will vary in the different 
departments. To determine this, the amount of preparation required for the class 
and the time needed for study to keep abreast of the subject, together with the number 
of students, must be taken into account. 

8. The college must be able to prepare its graduates to enter without conditions as 
candidates for advanced degrees reputable graduate colleges. 

9. No institution shall be considered for membership or retain membership unless a 
regular blank has been filed with the commission and is filed triennially unless the 
inspectors have waived the presentation of the triennial blank. 

10. The local inspector shall be the organ of communication between the college 
and the commission. 

In 1907 the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the 
Southern States considered the following college standards in the 
form of proposed by-laws for the association: 

1. No college belonging to this association shall maintain a preparatory school as 
part of its college organization. In case such school is maintained under the college 
charter, it must be kept rigidly distinct in students, faculty, and discipline. 

2. Every college belonging to the association shall seek to promote the development 
of high schools in every way, and to this end shall admit no students except those who 
have completed a reputable high-school course. In measuring the amount of work 
done by such students, the association accepts the valuation indicated in the first 
annual report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, published 
in 1906. 

1 Proc, 1909, pp. 52-53. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 59 

3. Candidates seeking full admission to college for any degree course in the literary 
department must offer 14 units of work. Irregular students may be admitted to par- 
tial standing by offering 10 units of work. Students may be admitted either on cer- 
tificate or on written examination, but they must in all cases comply with the above 
requirements as to the amount of work offered. Conditions may not be so construed as 
to excuse students from offering at least 10 units of preparatory work. The association 
strongly recommends that all candidates be required to offer English and mathematics, 
and that all candidates for full admission or for any degree <;ourses be required to offer 
the necessary preparation in two languages besides English. Irregular students may 
becomeregular; that is, may secure full admission to college in two ways: (a) By pass- 
ing off the necessary number of units in subjects prescribed for admission as the result 
of private study or in class; (b) by doing other work offered in college which shall be 
counted as the fulfillment of entrance requirements. In such cases two hours of class 
work for one college year shall be counted as equivalent to one entrance unit; but 
college work thus offered for admission must not be counted toward a degree. 

4. Special students may be admitted to college without the usual form of examina- 
tion under the following conditions: (a) They must be of mature age (not less than 
20 years is suggested); (6) they must not be admitted to classes for which entrance 
examinations are required unless they pass such examinations; (c) they must give 
proof of adequate preparation for the course sought; (d) their names must be sepa- 
rately printed in the catalogue. 

5. No preparatory school that confers degrees shall be eligible to membership in this 
association. Any school seeking membership must ha^'e a cuiTiculum of study amply 
sufficient to meet the fullest requirements of the association for admission to college and 
must have students regularly finishing such com'se of study each year. ^ 

The Carnegie Foundation report for 1908 gives a table of 56 insti- 
tutions, distributed through the whole country, showing the advance 
in requirements for admission in units in 1907-8, and naming 13 
colleges that had raised their requirement by making the course in 
their preparatory departments one of 4 years instead of one of 3 years. 
The results of correspondence with more than 500 colleges indicated 
a duplication of this record of advance for the year 1908-9 (pp. 92-93) .^ 

In 1906 an attempt to define a college appears in the report of a 
committee on standards for admission to membership in the College 
Entrance Examination Board. Dean Hurlbut, of Harvard, chair- 
man, presented the following: 

In the college applying for admission — 

1. There shall be specifically defined and consistently carried out, whether by 
examination or certificate (or for the admission of special students), requirements for 
admission which shall in every case be equivalent to a four years' course in a college- 
preparatory or high school of good gTade, able to prepare its pupils for admission to the 
colleges aheady belonging to this board. 

2. The members of the faculty shall have an academic training adequate to maintain 
a high standard of teaching; they shall bear a proper proportion to the students to be 
taught, and shall be sufficient in number to permit of proper specialization in the sub- 
jects assigned to each individual instructor. 

3. The breadth of the college curriculum, the standard of graduation, the grade of 
work, and the amount of work demanded shall be proper subjects of inquiry by the 
executive committee and shall constitute factors in determining their decision. 

1 Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching, 3d An. Rep. of Pres. and Treas., 190S, pp. 96-97. 

2 See also U. S. Bii. of Educ. Bull., 1910, No. 6, whole number 445— Statistics of State Universities and 
other Institutions of Higher Education partially supported hy the State. 



60 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

4. There shall be no preparatory department under the government or instruction of 
the college faculty. 

5. There shall have been, for at least 3 years preceding the application for admis- 
sion, an average of at least 50 students in the regular entering classes (courses in arts 
and in science to be reckoned together for this purpose.) 

6. There shall be an annual free income-bearing endowment, yielding in no case 
less than $20,000 annually; in case of State universities or State colleges an equal 
appropriation, expended exclusively on the undergraduate department, as well as 
libraries, laboratories, buildings, and equipment adequate to maintain the degree of 
efficiency and the standard of scholarship contemplated in the above provisions.' 

In 1903 the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary- 
Schools appointed a committee to take into consideration the advisa- 
bility of extending the work of the commission so as to include 
accredited colleges and to determine what should be the require- 
ments for the bachelor's degree. In 1906 the association enlarged 
the name and scope of the Commission on Accredited Schools by 
adding "and Colleges." ^ 

The Pennsylvania School Laws and Decisions (1909) define col- 
leges and academies as follows: 

CCCLXXX. That all institutions of learning hereafter to be incorporated as colleges, 
universities, or theological seminaries, with power to confer degrees in art, pure and 
applied science, philosophy, literature, law, medicine, and theology, or any of them, 
shall be incorporated in the manner hereinafter set forth, with general power as 
follows: 

First. To have succession by their corporate names for the period limited by their 
charters, and when no period is limited thereby or by this act, perpetually, subject to 
the power of the general assembly, under the constitution of this Commonwealth. 

Second. To maintain and defend judicial proceedings. 

Third. To make and use a common seal and alter the same at pleasure. 

Fourth. To hold, purchase, and transfer such real and personal property as the pur- 
poses of the corporation require, not exceeding the amount limited by its charter or 
by law. 

Fifth. To appoint and remove such subordinate officers and agents as the business 
of the corporation requires, and to allow them suitable compensation. 

Sixth. To make by-laws, not inconsistent with law, for the management of their 
property and the regulation of its affairs. 

Seventh. To enter into any obligation necessary to the transaction of their ordinary 
affairs. 

CCCLXXXII. No institution shall be chartered with the power to confer degrees 
unless it has assets amounting to five hundred thousand dollars invested in buildings, 
apparatus, and endowments for the exclusive purpose of promoting instruction, and 
unless the faculty consists of, at least six regular professors who devote all their time to 
the instruction of its college or university classes, nor shall any baccalaureate degree 
in art, science, philosophy, or literature be conferred upon any student who has not 
completed a college or university course covering four years. The standard of admis- 
sion to these four years' courses or to advanced classes in these courses shall be subject 
to the approval of the said council. 

J See Col. Entrance Ex. Bd., Doc. 48, Dec, 1910; Proc. of 12th an. meeting N. Cen. Assoc, of Col. and 
Sec. Schs., pp. 22, 23. 

2 Proc. N. Cen. Assoc, 1906, p. 130. Cf. Director Carman's paper, "Sliall we accredit colleges?" in Proc. 
N. Cen. Assoc, 1907, pp. 81-96, and the presidential address, "An American Federation of Learning," by 
George E. MacLean, pp. 3-25. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 61 

The Ohio school laws in force April 16, 1906, define a college as 
follows : 

(Sec. 4007-3 ) A college is hereby defined as a school of a higher grade than a high 
school, in which instruction in the high-school branches is carried beyond the scope 
of the high school and other advanced studies are pursued, or a school in which special, 
technical, or professional studies are pursued, and which may, when legally organized, 
have the right to confer degrees in agreement with the terms of the law regulating its 
practices or its charter; or, in the want of legislative direction, in agi-eement with the 
practices of the better institutions of learning of their respective kinds in the United 
States. 

In 1907 the General Assembly of Iowa (sees. 2634-f to 2634-h, 
school laws, 1907) passed a statute exempting from examinations for 
a State teacher's certificate the graduates of the college of liberal 
arts of the State University and of the general course of the college of 
agriculture and the advanced course of the normal school, and colleges 
having rank and collegiate courses of instruction equivalent to those 
in the State institutions. This legislation made the courses named 
collegiate and normal school standards for the State, and made it 
necessary for the State board of educational examiners to set out a 
definition and standards for accredited colleges. 

They adopted the following specifications, set out 8 objective stand- 
ards, and made temporary provision for classifying the colleges in 3 
groups. After one year's experience, the board found it necessary to 
supplement the paper reports of the colleges by an inspection. One 
of the 8 points was ''the average salary of heads of departments, 
exclusive of the president, shall be at least $1,000." Objections were 
made by some of the institutions, which found it difficult to meet 
the minimum wage scale, to the grouping of the colleges, which 
originally the board undertook as a temporary expedient to get the 
law into operation as a stimulus to all deserving colleges. The 
present regulations of the board, representing the result of experience 
and suggestions from the colleges, as amended May 8, 1911, are as 
foUows (standards advised b}^ January 1, 1916): 

1. The number of class hours for the heads of departments shall not exceed 16 a week. 

2. A faculty properly qualified shall consist of graduates of colleges who have pur- 
sued graduate work in residence equivalent to that requked for a doctor's degree, pro- 
vided that this requhement shall not apply to faculty members approved by the State 
educational board of examiners prior to July 1, 1910. 

3. The library shall consist of at least 15,000 volumes, selected with reference to 
college subjects and exclusive of public documents. 

4. The laboratory equipment shall be worth not less than $15,000, and so distributed 
as to establish at least an efficient chemical, physical, botanical, and zoological 
laboratory. 

5. The means of support is defuied as requhing a permanent productive endowment 
of not less than $500,000, or a fixed assm*ed income, exclusive of tuition, of at least 
125,000. 

6. The college must maintain at least 10 separate departments or chairs, and in case 
the pedagogical work of the institution is to be accepted without examination, the 



62 PKESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

college must maintain at least 11 chairs, 1 of whi^h shall be devoted exclusively to 
education, or at most to philosophy, including psychology and education. The heads 
of these departments shall be devoted exclusively to college work. 

7. The graduates must, in addition to the 4-year college course, show the comple- 
tion of a 4-year secondary course according to the standards established by the State 
board of education as entrance requirements to the collegiate courses of the institu- 
tions under the control of said board, and the standing and character of the institution 
and the nature of its equipment and work must be such as to entitle its graduates to 
admission to the graduate college of the State University of Iowa. 

But, beginning January 1, 1912, the standard for accredited colleges shall be the 
following: 

1. The number of class hours for the heads of departments and students shall not 
exceed 20 a week. 

2. A faculty, properly qualified, shall consist of graduates of colleges who have pur- 
sued graduate work in residence at least 2 years, or an equivalent in acquired scholar- 
ship approved by the Ijoard of educational examiners. 

3. The library shall consist of at least 7,500 volumes, selected with reference to col- 
lege subjects, and exclusive of public documents. 

4. The laboratory equipment, except in an institution inspected and approved by 
the board as a classical college only, shall be worth not less than $7,500, and so dis- 
tributed as to establish at least an efficient chemical, jjhysical, botanical, and 
zoological laboratory. 

5. The means of support is defined as requiring a permanent endowment of not less 
than .'?200,000, or a fixed assured income or its equivalent, exclusive of tuition, of at 
least ?10,000. 

G. The college must maintain at least 7 separate departments or chairs, and in case 
the pedagogical work of the institution is to be accepted without examination, the 
college must maintain at least 8 chairs, 1 of which shall be devoted exclusively to 
education, or at most to philosophy, including psychology and education. At least 5 
heads of these departments shall in no case devote less than three-fourths of their class 
hours to college work. 

7. The graduates must, in addition to the 4-year college course, show the comple- 
tion of a 4-year secondary course according to the standards established by the State 
board of education as entrance requirements to the collegiate courses of the institutions 
under the control of said board, and the standing and character of the institution and 
the nature of its equipment and work must be such as to entitle its graduates to admis- 
sion to the graduate college of the State University of Iowa. 

In addition to the objective standard here set out, the character of the curriculimi, 
the efficiency of instruction, the scientific spirit, the standard for regular degrees, the 
conservatism in granting honorary degrees, and the tone of the institution will be con- 
sidered as factors in determining eligibility. 

It will be observed from the above that the board v^^ill no longer 
group accredited colleges, but requires that all colleges meet the 
standard in force at any given time. The board will hereafter pub- 
lish the list of accredited colleges, arranging the names of the colleges 
in alphabetical order, and after each name^publish a detailed state- 
ment of data submitted. 

A comparison of the data concerning institutions on the accepted 
list of the Carnegie Foundation (3d an. rep., 1909, pp. 40-45) and 
of the data concerning State universities (pp. 74-77) easily proves 
that the standards set by the Iowa State board of educational exam- 



PRESENT STANDAEDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 63 

iners for 1916 is a fair one. This probably, with the inspections of 
the Bureau of Education, will demonstrate that the colleges of the 
country will fall into four groups and that the minimum for the "A" 
colleges will be at least that of the Iowa, 1916, standard (cf. p. 61); 
for the "B" colleges that of 1912 standard (cf. p. 62). A group of 
very small colleges with high scholastic standards should be rated in 
accordance with ratios deduced from the number of students and 
student hours. This might form group "C," in its way a group 
comparable with "A" and "B," and one to be highly respected and 
cherished. Group "D" would consist of small colleges that either 
on the ground of their youth might be rated as initial colleges, or if 
no longer youthful, should be recognized as junior colleges or colle- 
giate institutes. Unless they can be immediately strengthened they 
should be advised to concentrate their work and to do thoroughly 
with high standards the work of the first two years of a college. 
Institutions of this sort should be reasonably numerous. 

Incidentally the National Association of State Universities approxi- 
mated a definition of a coUege in their report as to a university. 
(See p. 136, Chapter on Universities.) The Association of American 
Universities inclines to this definition. Both of these associations are 
waiting for reports of work proceeding under the United States 
Bureau of Education and the Carnegie Foundation. The appoint- 
ment by the United States Bureau of Education of a specialist in 
higher education and the cooperation of the deans of graduate schools 
with the Association of American Universities and that of the State 
universities will lead to an intelligent basis for the possible rating 
and classifying of colleges.^ 

The passing of definitions of standard colleges from academic and 
institutional uses to statutory uses in many States in a way to pre- 
cipitate a national standard is marked by the reports of conferences 
of the chief State school officers of the North Central and Western 
States. The influence of the Iowa standards in this report is very 
marked, but it must be remembered the Iowa standards may be 
traced in their origin to those of New York and various associations. 
The conference of the chief State school officers at Salt Lake City, 
in November, 1910, adopted the following definition of a standard 
coUege or university : 

To be considered a standard college all of the following conditions must be fully 
met: 

1. The completion of a four-year secondary course above the eighth grade shall 
be required for college entrance. 

2. The completion of 120 semester hours shall be required for graduation. 

3. The number of class hours for the heads of departments and for students shall 
not exceed 20 a week. 

1 Of. address of K. C. Babcock, Trans, and proc. of the Nat. Assoc. State Universities of the U. S. A., 
in 1910, pp. 112-115. 



64 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

4. A faculty properly qualified sliall consist entirely of graduates of standard col- 
leges, and each head of a department shall hold at least a master's degree from a 
standard college or have attained eminent success as a teacher, which success shall 
be determined by the chief State school officer of the State in which the institution is 
located. 

5. The library shall consist of at least 5,000 volumes, selected with reference to 
college subjects and exclusive of public documents. 

6. The laboratory equipment shall be sufficient to establish efficient laboratories 
in all laboratory courses offered. 

7. The means of support is defined as requiring a permanent endowment of not less 
than $200,000, or an assured fixed annual income exclusive of tuition of at least $10,000; 
provided that this requirement shall not be mandatory until 5 years after the institu- 
tion has been recognized. The college must maintain at least 7 separate departments 
or chairs in the arts and sciences. In case the pedagogical work of the institution is to 
be accepted for certification, the college must maintain at least 8 chairs, 1 of which 
shall be devoted exclusively to education, or at least to philosophy, including psy- 
chology and education. The head of each department shall, in no case, devote less 
than three-fourths of his time to college work. 

The Association of Collegiate Alumnae, while not specifically defin- 
ing a standard college, has done so incidentally in setting out stand- 
ards for admission to the association. An institution to be entitled 
to admission must show the following qualifications: 

I. ADMINISTRATION. 

(a) The board of trustees shall be so constituted as to support sound financial and 
educational methods. 

(b) There shall be a reasonable recognition of women in faculties and in the student 
body and proper provision for the intellectual and social needs of women students. 

(c) Much weight shall be given to the fact where women are on the board of trustees. 

(d) In the consideration of a coeducational institution great weight shall be given 
to the fact that such an institution has a dean or adviser of women, above the rank of 
instructor, giving instruction and counted a regular member of the faculty. 

n. DEGREES. 

(a) The bachelor's degree shall be based on scholarly attainments represented by 
the following general conditions: 

1. Entrance requirements such as demand at least 4 years of serious secondary 
school work for preparation. 

2. Class sections restricted to such numbers as insure proper individual instruction, 
except in the case of purely lecture courses. 

3. A residence of at least 2 years in the college confeiTing the degree or in a college 
of equally high grade. 

4. Graduation requirements which correspond to the amount of work ordinarily 
included in 4 years of serious college study. 

(6) The master's degree shall be given only for resident graduate work; or, in the 
case of the honorary degree, for original work of high distinction, 
(c) The degree of doctor of philosophy shall not be given causa honoris. 

III. FACULTY. 

(a) The number of full professors shall be at least as large as the minimum number, 
and their ratio to the number of students shall be at least as large as the average num- 
ber in institutions of the same type already admitted to membership. 



PRESENT STAFDAEDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 65 

(b) The ratio of the number of instructors to the number of students shall be at least 
as large as the average in institutions of the same type already admitted to mem- 
bership. 

(c) The salaries of the teaching staff shall not be lower than the minimum for the 
same grade in institutions already admitted to membership where the living con- 
ditions are similar. 

(d) All members of the teaching staff, unless adequate reasons can be given for a 
few possible exceptions, shall hold degrees from colleges of recognized standing. 

(e) A distinctly large proportion of the full professors shall hold degrees based on 
graduate university work. 

(/) There shall be no preparatory department under the government or instruction 
of the college faculty. 

IV. MATERIAL RESOURCES. 

(a) The number of laboratories shall not he less than the average number in institu- 
tions of the same type aheady admitted to membership. 

(6) The number of books in the library shall not be less than the average number 
in institutions of the same type already admitted to membership. 

(c) The number of departmental journals regularly placed in the libraries shall not 
be less than the average number in institutions of the same type already admitted to 
membership. 

(d) The total property shall not be less than the minimum. 

(e) The productive endowment shall not be less than the minimum. 
(/) The income per student shall not be less than the average. 

(g) No coeducational institution shall be considered in which there is not special 
provision, through halls of residence or in other buildings, for the social life of the 
women students. ^ 

SUMMARY. 

Requirements for admission. — The increase in the quantity of admis- 
sion requirements of the colleges has risen in the decade from 8 units 
to 12 as a minimum and 14 as a standard in the Southern States. 
In the Northern States, east and west, the requirements increased 
from a minimum of 12 to a maximum of 16 units. The majority of 
the institutions require 15 units for first-year classification, but 
admit with conditions on 14 or even 13^ units. Almost absolute 
uniformity, however, is in sight on the basis of the rejection of can- 
didates who do not have 14 units and a tendency to abolish admission 
with conditions. 

The terminology of the measure of admission requirements has 
become almost fixed and universal. The recommendations of the 
national conference committee on standards of colleges and second- 
ary schools, adopted in January, 1911, present the general practice, 
and these recommendations have been already accepted by the North 
Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools: 

Resolved, That this committee recommends, as a matter of convenience and to 
secure uniformity — 

(1) That the term "unit" be used only as a measure of work done in secondary 
schools, and that the term "period" be used to denote a recitation (or equivalent 
exercise) in a secondary school; 



I Rep. Commis. Educ, 1909, vol. 1, pp. 59-60, 
62400°— 13 5 



66 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

(2) That the term "hour" be restricted to use in measuring college work, and that 
the term "exercise" be used to denote a recitation, lecture, or laboratory period in 
a college ; 

(3) That "unit" be used as defined by this committee, the Carnegie Foundation, 
and the College Entrance Examination Board, and that "hour" be used preferably 
in the sense of year-hour; and 

(4) That the use of other terms, such as "count," "point," "credit," etc., in any 
of these senses be discontinued. 

The objection that there may be a mere mechanical standardization 
by the use of a defined unit or "counter" is well met in a chapter on 
the use of the "Recommendations of a Standard Unit in Secondary 
Education" in the Carnegie Foundation Fourth Annual Report, 1909, 
pages 131-133. 

The flexibility of entrance requirements has become well-nigh 
universal, that is, the required specified subjects have been widely 
reduced to a minimum of about 8 units out of 15. There is also 
almost an agreement as to the subjects. The present standard may 
be said to be: English, 3 units; mathematics, IJ to 2| units; foreign 
language, minimum 2, maximum 4 units. There is a tendency to 
make history a constant at 1 unit, and some science at 1 unit. The 
7 elective units until very recently have been established subjects for 
instruction. The latest largely successful move is to allow a Hmited 
number of units in the so-called newer subjects, the industrial sub- 
jects of manual training or domestic science, and agriculture, draw- 
ing, fine arts, and music. The flexibility of entrance requirements 
was carried to an absolute degree by Clark College in accepting the 
graduates of any New England high school or any other high school 
with an equivalent standard. This practice is limited, but prevails 
in representative institutions among the colleges we have selected, 
like iUbion, and among the universities, like Leland Stanford. The 
statement of the High School Teachers' Association of New York 
City on the articulation of high school and college or the reorganiza- 
tion of secondary education concedes that this practice may seem 
too radical and recommends a high degree of flexibility as urgent. 
The statement argues: 

There are seven distinct lines of work which we believe essential to a well-roimded 
high-school course, to wit, language, mathematics, history and civics, science, music, 
drawing, and manual training. Girls must be taught household science and art. 
Moreover, we believe that the twentieth century demands that the high schools 
should not cast all students in the same mold; that the amount of science and manual 
training which is sufficient for one student is utterly inadequate for another; and 
that a training for business may be given in the high school which will be as cultural 
and as respectable as any other course. To enable the high schools to adapt secondary 
education to the varying needs of different students in such a manner as to meet 
the diverse demands of the professions, of industry', and of commerce, progress seems 
to us to require — 

{■q) The reduction in the number of so-called "requu-ed " subjects, together with 

(2>) The recognition of all standard subjects as electives. 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES. 67 

The specified entrance requirement of two foreign languages, the meager electives 
in science, and the absence of recognition for drawing, music, household science and 
art, shopwork, commercial branches, and civics and economics constitute the chief 
difficulty. 

We should like to see it possible for a student upon entering the high school to 
choose Latin or German or French; to confine his work in foreign language, during 
his high-school coiu'se, to one such language in case the remainder of his time is 
required for other subjects; and to find at the end of his high-school course that he 
has met the foreign language requkements of whatever college he may choose to 
enter. We should like to see no discrimination against Latin for the com'se leading 
to the B. S. degree, so that students choosing any language may enter the B. S. course. 

We should like to see the following subjects recognized by college entrance credits: 

Music, 1 unit; mechanical and freehand drawing, each § to 1 unit; household 
chemistry, botany, zoology, physiography, applied physics, and advanced chemistry, 
each 1 unit; modem history, 1 unit; civics and economics, each | to 1 unit; house- 
hold science and art; 2 units; and commercial geography, commercial law, stenography 
and typewriting, elementary bookkeeping, advanced bookkeeping, and accounting, 
each J to 1 unit. 

A recent study of entrance requirements shows that many colleges are already 
requiring only one foreign language for admission, and that many of the above subjects 
have received recognition. 

Incidentally it is interesting to note the testimony of Inspector 
Alton that where the new subjects have been freely welcomed the 
old standard subjects have held their own in competition with the 
new subjects.^ 

The new entrance requirements of the University of Chicago (cf. 
p. 44) as well as of Harvard (cf. p. 42) fully meet the desires of the 
statement of the High School Teachers' Association of New York 
City. The report of the committee of nine on the articulation of 
high school and college at the National Education Association in 
July, 1911, was largely forstalled, therefore, by the action of Harvard, 
Chicago, and the practice of a number of the leading universities and 
colleges. 

It is evident that the quality of the work which was in danger of 
being lost in the emphasis put upon the quantity and kind of work 
has been safeguarded by the carefully wrought-out definitions of 
units by the associations, by the College Entrance Examination Board, 
by the newer methods of gauging the candidate through a personal 
acquaintance with him and with his records, and by a general evalua- 
tion of his accomplishment and powers in a well-balanced curriculum 
in a standard institution. The long-drawn-out battle as to methods 
of admission by examination or certificate in one sense has been won 
by the certificate method, but fortunately not by the mere paper 
certificate. That method has been supplanted by examinations in 
some subjects or the examination of the student's entire record and 
by the test of his record as a college entrant and by the increasing 
systematic and sympathetic inspection of the schools. Since the 

> 17tli An. Rep. of Inspector of State High Schools, Minnesota, for school year ending July 31, 1910, 



68 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHEK EDUCATION. 

modification of Harvard's plan, almost the sole protagonists of the 
examination method pure and simple are Yale, Princeton, and Bryn 
Mawr. 

Requirements for graduation. — The standard requirement for grad- 
uation is 60 year or 120 semester hours of purely scholastic work, with 
the addition of from 4 to 6 hours for required physical training. As 
a rule, the subjects for the freshman year are required with some option. 
English is the only absolute constant. The standard is taking shape 
by which the sequences in subjects must be pursued in accordance 
with the preparation brought from the high school. This law of 
sequences, together with the principle of prerequisites for advanced 
studies, either specifically set out or resting upon the direction of an 
adviser, is reestablishing a flexible group system adapted to the 
individual in place of the absolutely free elective system. The 
practice of having "majors" and "^minors" is almost universal for 
at least 2 years, and has extended itself widely through the last 3 
years. The arrangement of the cognate studies of the curriculum 
mto 3 or at most 4 groups or categories and the requirement of a mini- 
mum amount of work in each group in the supposed interest of pre- 
serving the liberal element in education, restores practically a pre- 
scribed course of study. The more or less natural division of the 
college course at the beginning of the junior year, due to the prepara- 
tion and age of the average student, the completion of the secondary 
studies and the demands of professional and technical education, 
reenforced by the taste of specialization given by "majors," justify 
the definitions of a standard college which recognize in effect a junior 
and a senior college (cf. North Central definitions of the standard 
college, p. 58). Attention to the quality of collegiate work has been 
re^dved by the grading of studies (cf. pp. 46, 54), the stimulus of mark- 
ing systems and honors (cf. p. 54), and the privilege of extra work (cf. 
p. 54), to say nothing of the increasingly stricter administration of 
the colleges and the elimination of the unfit. 

Qualifications of instructors. — Qualifications of the staff of instruc- 
tion over and above the old ones of character, personal caliber, and 
power to teach, are advanced work beyond the bachelor's degree 
usually taken in a university, and in travel. Measured by mere 
degrees, the standard would be the possession of a Ph.D. degree or its 
equivalent for the colleges of the highest rank. The possession of a 
master's degree or its equivalent represents the present status. The 
average hours of class instruction for a teacher range from a minimum 
of 5 in some universities like Johns Hopkins to 12 or 15 in the best 
colleges, with a maximum of 20 in the weaker colleges. Much empha- 
sis is put upon having the collegiate instruction separate from that 
of the secondaiy school or academy.^ 

1 For the average requirements for equipment in buildings, libraries and laboratories, and income, cf. 
The Iowa Standards; p. 01. 



PKESENT STANDAEDS OP LIBERAL AETS COLLEGES. 69 

The spirit and ideals of the college defy objective standards. The 
traditions regarding American colleges have been handed on from 
professor to professor, so that every true college has an atmosphere. 
The proof of this is in the consecration of the professors to their life 
work — a consecration so great that they live upon low salaries and 
impart a passion for truth and learning for their own sake. The 
much-abused word "culture," when properly understood, not as a 
matter of esthetic sentiment but of genuine sympathy with intelli- 
gence, is a note of the true college. No college organized for commer- 
cial profit answers the test or can long preserve the spirit and ideals 
of the college. 



CHAPTER 11. 
STANDARDS OF THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.^ 

The first instruction in theology in the United States began with 
the opening of Harvard College. A leading purpose of its founders 
is expressed in one of their sentences: "Dreading to leave an illiterate 
ministry to the churches when our present ministry shall lie in the 
dust * * *." In 1654 a fourth year was added to the college 
course, originally of 3 years, in order to prepare more thoroughly for 
the ministiy. The first professorship instituted in the university was 
the HoUis professorship of divinity in 1721. The differentiation of 
the divinity school from the college was very gradual. Its faculty 
was not formally organized earlier than 1819. This was the year in 
which the first annual catalogue was issued. Before this in the 
sheets, or broadsides, the theological students evidently were included 
under the head of resident graduates. This year the catalogue sets 
out "candidates for the ministry and theological students. The 
cancUdates are designated by italic characters." The theological 
students numbered 38, in a total attendance of 383. The organiza- 
tion of the theological school, together with those of the schools of 
medicine and law, is first indicated in the catalogue for 1827-28. "The 
apprentice system," by which the college graduate read chvinity in 
residence \vith some pastor, prevailed or supplemented the theological 
studies of the college course until well into the nineteenth century. 

At the begimiing of the nineteenth century, doubtless much stimu- 
lated by the theological controversies of the day, theological semina- 
ries were founded. Yale, founded in 1701, like Harvard, emphasized 
theological education in the college, as the words of the charter 
show: "With zeal for upholding and propagation of the Christian 
Protestant religion by a succession of learned and orthodox men 
* * * who through the blessing of Almighty God may be fitted 
for public employment, both in the church and civil state." ^ The 
theological department became famous in the first quarter of the 
nineteenth century. 

In 1809 the proposal to establish a theological seminary for the 
Presbyterian Church was introduced to the general assembly, which 
submitted three plans, 1, to establish one school near the center of 

I In the chapters of this bulletin the term "school" is used generically unless the technical dofinition of 
a school recommended by the Association of American Universities and the National Association of State 
Universities is specifically named. Cf. p. 142, university chapter. 

* An Act for Liberty to erect a collegiate school of the Colony of Connecticut. 

70 



STANDARDS OF THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 71 

the church; 2, to establish one school in the North and one in the 
South; 3, to establish a school in each synod. In 1811 the general 
assembly adopted a plan for a single school, and in 1812 located it at 
Princeton. 

In the same period Andover Seminary was founded by the Congre- 
gationalists in Massachusetts, and the various denominations and 
even schools of thought in the denominations founded their schools. 
With the exception of a few denominations, who were rather opposed 
to a "learned ministry," nominally the requirements for admission 
from the beginning were college graduation. The doors, however, 
were open with various limitations for noncollege graduates. The 
present requirements are more strict with reference to the possession 
of a bachelor's degree, but almost without exception provision is 
made to take care of those not graduating. 

REQUIEEMENTS FOR ADMISSION. 

The requirements for admission of the following institutions show 
the prevailing standards : 

Harvard — Candidates for degree: Bachelor's degree from approved institution, or 
education "equal to that of graduates of the best New England colleges" ; testimonials. 

Special students: Same. Students may choose any course they are prepared for. 
but can not neglect certain ones. 

Yale. — Those who have no degree must "show by certificate or examination" that 
they have "the substantial equivalent of a college training." 

Special students: Those are admitted who show "superior scholarship" as candi- 
dates for degree. 

Senior B. A.'s may elect part of jimior divinity work. 

Princeton. — ^A. B. or other degree; or an equivalent certificate; or examination on 
usual collegiate studies of classical course; credentials. 

Special students: May receive certificate for work done, or by examination become 
regular students. "Hospitality of the seminary may be extended to any accredited 
persons." 

Union. — Graduation from "college of recognized standing," or by examination; 
credentials and other testimonials. 

Special students: From those not graduates, Regent's classical academic diploma 
covering 6 subjects, or certificate that they have satisfied entrance requirements of 
"some reputable college." 

Catholic. — For advanced course, must have completed "a classical college course," 
with 2 years in philosophy and 3 in theology. 

Special students: For elementary course; the "classical college course" and 2 years 
in philosophy. 

McCormick. — "A regular course of collegiate study;" elementary Hebrew recom- 
mended; church credentials. 

Special students: Special recommendations from presbytery and admitted first 
half-year on probation. 

Vanderbilt.— "Classical education at some reputable college" desnable, but lack of 
such does not debar; testimonials. 

Special students: Students without college training must take course m literary 
expression; testimonials. 



72 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Chicago. — " Diploma of an accepted college;" Greek may be required and credited. 

Special students: Without examination, if they can show reason, or if they are 
prepared to profit by the course; English theological seminary open to pastors, students, 
and religious workers who have not had college course. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION AND DEGREES. 

The courses at the beginning prescribed under the influence of the 
elective system have admitted a minimum amount of electives not 
to exceed one-third of the course. Where the elective system has 
not been recognized, a group system has been established in accord- 
ance with the purpose of the student in his future service. It is in- 
teresting to note the progress of specialization in the field of theology, 
due not only to the breadth of the subject but to the demands of the 
complexity of modern civilization. 

The conferring of degrees in course in theology, outside the practice 
of the Roman Catholic Church and the representatives of European 
State churches, is recent. The first degree of bachelor of divinity given 
in connection with graduation was first instituted at Harvard in 1869. 
Almost uniformly the course is 3 years in length. In certain insti- 
tutions the combined liberal arts and theological course is recognized, 
by which a year may be saved either in the four-year liberal arts 
course or in the tlieological school. A four-years' theological course 
has also emerged in schools connected with churches, encouraging 
specialization in the science of theology or on the practical side in 
applied Christianity. 

The following are the requirements for graduation and degrees 
from the typical schools selected : 

Harvard. — 14 courses (a course generally equals 3 hours per week through the year) ; 
not more than 6 in any one year; 3^ courses necessary for promotion to middle class, 
8 to senior class. Courses of Andover Theological Seminary may be counted, and so 
may 2 courses fi'om faculty of arts and sciences. 

Yale. — A course of 3 years "in this or some other equivalent school" admits to 
"graduate standing"; one course and approved thesis; 3-year course in "department 
of pastoral service" leads to B. D. 

Princeton. — 1,444 hours of instruction, or 16 hours for 3 years of 30 weeks each. 
Three years of residence "in this or some other approved seminary" and satisfactory 
completion of all studies in regular course, and one of the B. D. courses made up of 
"extra curriculum" studies. 

Union. — Diploma without degree does not require Greek and Hebrew. 

Advanced degree: Offers D. D. for 3 years' postgraduate work; a part of this time may 
be spent elsewhere. Candidate must read Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, German, 
and publish thesis. 

Catholic. — S. T. B. conferred after finishing "seminary courses of philosophy and 
theology"; Hebrew or examination in Hebrew or interpretation. 

Advanced degrees: For S. T. L., 2 years in postgraduate study; taking 3 courses of 
study, 2 of which must be in faculty of theology; written dissertation with public 
defense of the dissertation, and 50 theses. For S. T. D., 2 years elapse after examination 
for the licentiate; dissertation and 75 theses to be defended. For J. C. B., "full semi- 
nary course, " including 1 year of canon law. For J. C. L., 2 years' study of the text 



STANDARDS OP THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 73 

and of public law; dissertation, and 50 theses. For J. C. D., "2 additional years," 
printed dissertation; 75 theses, publicly sustained. 

McCormick. — Three years of 17 hours per week; in junior year, all work prescribed; 
ia middle and senior year, 13 hours prescribed; 2 hours elective. Graduate students 
may receive degree on attainment of 12 credits and thesis. A credit is a coiu^e of 30 
hours; 46 credits requisite for graduation and 56 for B. D. degree, of which 42 are 
prescribed. 

Vanderbilt. — Degree conferred on those "who complete one of the degree courses" 
and have a baccalaureate degxee of recognized college; others may qualify by doing 
extra work. 

Chicago. — 27 majors (17 majors are same for B. D. and Ph. D. degrees); 18 must have 
been pm-sued in "a theological school of high standing," and not less than 9 at this 
university. Requirements for examination nearly same as for Ph. D. 

COMMISSION ON PRE-THEOLOGICAL COURSE. 

The beginning of the unification of standards appears in the ap- 
pointment of a commission on study preparatory to the theological 
seminary appointed at a meeting of the Religious Education Asso- 
ciation in Chicago in 1909. The following resolution was adopted: 

That a committee of 12 be appointed, representing endowed institutions of advanced 
education as well as State universities for the purpose of formulating an ideal or sug- 
gestive com'se of collegiate study preparatory to a course in a theological seminary.^ 

The commission presented the following memorandum of report 
at the meeting of the association in March, 1910: 

1. Your committee at first attempted to draw up a complete cm-riculum for the four 
college years. Such a curriculum, however, was seen to be impracticable on account 
of the different studies, number of hom-s, and other conditions required by different 
colleges for their degrees. It seemed best, therefore, to the committee to draw up a 
list of com-ses which are especially adapted to prepare men for work in theological 
seminaries. 

2. It has seemed advisable further to distinguish between two classes of courses: 
Those which seem absolutely essential in training for practical efiiciency in the ministry 
(list A) ; and those which are highly important for the development of the more techni- 
cally theological efiiciency of the ministry (list B). 

It is the recommendation of the committee that the studies in list A be pursued by 
all students for the ministry; and that course B be pursued by those who wish to 
prepare themselves in the fullest degree for the philological and exegetical studies of 
the seminary ciuriculiun. In so far as the student's aptitude and opportunities permit 
the committee would suggest that the studies in both lists be pursued. 

3. As regards the amount of time to be given to each study, the committee has chosen 
as its unit a coxu-se running 3 hours a week for an entire college year. In colleges whei'e 
a given study fills a different number of hours per week the adjustment will be easily 
made. 

The committee further assumes that the total number of hoiu-s per week required 
in a college will not exceed 15 or 16. 

The committee has deemed it best to leave a certain number of units free for elec- 
tives, permitting more thorough study of such courses of the suggested curriculmn as 
particularly appeal to a student. 

4. The student is advised to consider the instructor as well as the course. In case 
a course is given by an inferior instructor the committee advises that the student 

1 U. S. Bureau of Educ, 1909, p. 44. 



74 PRESENT STANDAEDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

substitute for it some other course in the corresponding group in the other list, or if 
more advisable even in some subject not suggested . It is the opinion of the committee 
that the influence of the teacher is as important as the material of a course. 

List A. — Courses recommended for the practical efficiency of the ministry: 

Units of 3 hours 
I. Preparation in literary expression: per week for year. 

English composition and rhetoric 1 

Literature (principally English) 1 

Public speaking (art of expression, vocal training, debating, etc.) 1 

The student should take as much as possible of such work even when no aca- 
demic credit is given for it. 
//. Languages: 

At least one foreign language, preferably Greek 2 

III. Natural science: 

Biology 1 

Psychology 1 

IV. Social science: 

History 2 

Political economy h 

Study of society (introduction to the study of sociology, dependents, etc., 
socialization, social science) 2 

V. Philosophy: 

History of philosophy 1 

List B. — Additional courses suggested as important preparation for technical 

theological study from which elections can be made: 

/. Languages: 

Latin 2 

German (if not taken in high school, otherwise 1) 2 

Hebrew (for those whose aptitude and desires would lead them to pursue 

Hebrew in seminary courses) 1 

Hellenistic Greek 1 

77. Natural and physical science: 

Geology ] 

Physics or chemistry 1 

777. Philosophy: 

Ethics I 

Introduction to philosophy i 

Logic ' i 

The Rev. Dr. William D. McKenzie, of Hartford Theological 
Seminary, a member of the commission, m an article ^ presents the 
objections to a standardization of theological education. He holds 
that there are 3 elements m religious education: First, religious fervor; 
second, theological orthodoxy; thhd, intellectual discipline. 

He beUeves it is admitted no one can standardize religious fervor, 
and inquires who shall standardize orthodoxy, and therefore con- 
cludes with a query, "What is the practical religious use of standard- 
izing theological scholarship without regard to those other two factors 
of actual power?" He thmks, therefore, that full standardization is 
impossible in the field of theological education if by that we mean a 
standard that should be practical for all the churches. 

It is, however, most significant to the student of standards that 
Dr. McKenzie after Ms forceful presentation of the objections to 
standards in the most difficult field of all, subject to the odium theo- 
logicum, concludes his paper with the expectation of the continuance 
of standardization. 

1 ReUgious Education, August, 1910, pp. 275-277. 2 Ibid., 1911, pp. 253-261. 



CHAPTER III. 
STANDARDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 

As in theology the student, ordinarily a college graduate, read with 
a minister, so in medicine, ordmarily without being a college grad- 
uate, the student was actually indentured to a physician whom he 
served in all possible ways until he shared in the practice. This sys- 
tem still survives m a shadowy way in the requirement for admission 
in some medical schools of a recommendation from the "preceptor." 
The first faculties of medicine were organized in Philadelphia between 
1765 and 1791, were followed by inchoate medical departments in 
King's College in New York, m Harvard, Dartmouth, and by 1810 in 
Yale, and were in connection with universities.^ 

Harvard affords a good illustration of the origin of a school. In 
the year 1780 Drs. Samuel Danforth, Isaac Rand, Thomas Rust, 
John Warren, and others formed an association, the Boston Medical 
Society. On November 3, 1781, this society voted that Dr. John 
Warren be desired to demonstrate a course of anatomical lectures 
the ensuing winter. Dr. Warren drew up a scheme which was 
placed before the corporation September 19, 1782. Twenty-two 
articles were adopted, among which was the establishing of "a 
professorship of anatomy and surgery, a professorship of the theory 
and practice of physics, and a professorship of chemistry and materia 
medica." Further, it was required that each professor be a master 
of arts or graduated bachelor or doctor of physics, of the Christian 
religion, and strict morals. 

The professors lectured in Cambridge in 1783; a few medical stu- 
dents and such seniors as had obtamed the consent of their parents 
attended. Three years' study, with attendance on two courses of 
lectures — ^in some cases reduced to attendance on one course, the 
longest being only four months — ^were required of those who presented 
themselves as candidates for a degree. Students not graduates of 
the college had to pass preliminary examinations in the Latin lan- 
guage and in natural philosophy. 

In imitation of the London schools, early in the nineteenth century, 
as against the Edinburgh or Leyden example followed by the earlier 
schools, a proprietary school was started m Baltimore. This school, 
with its many later followers, gave a particularly American and 

1 Cf. Packard, History of Medicine in the United States; and Medical Education in the United States 
and Canada, Abraham Flexner, Bull. No. 4, Carnegie Foundation, 1910. 

75 



76 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

unfortunate development to medical education. Private and often 
commercialized schools, separate from the stimulus and standards 
of universities, produced in little more than a century 457 so-called 
medical schools. Indeed, there was almost a transfer of medical 
education to the proprietary medical schools.^ 

As yet there were no State boards. The school diploma was a 
license to practice. Applicants who could pay their fees or even 
sign notes were likely to be accepted and graduated after superficial 
oral examinations. (Flexner, p. 7.) Before long even the medical 
faculties of Harvard, Yale, and Pennsylvania became largely inde- 
pendent of the university, disposmg of professorships by common 
agreement, segregating and dividing fees after the fashion of the 
proprietary schools. Not until the eighties of the nineteenth century 
did the universities begin to recover these schools. There were no 
established requirements for admission. The sessions of the school 
were only 10 or 20 weeks each. The courses were not graded. The 
methods of instruction were didactic, with the same lectures read 
from year to year. 

Laboratories were scarcely known, though, as we see in the intro- 
duction (p. 10), in liberal arts colleges they began to appear early in the 
nineteenth century m the sciences. Clinical facilities wei'e referred 
to in announcements, but amounted to little. 

About 1830 Yale medical school went so far as to procure legisla- 
tion to lengthen the term of medical study and establish something 
of preliminaiy education, but receded from its position.^ 

In 1835 the Medical College of Georgia suggested concerted action 
to cure the prevalent abuses, but the begmning of a reform move- 
ment is to be dated from the call of the medical society of the State 
of New York, whicli led to the formation of the American Medical 
Association, as foUows: 

Whereas it is believed that a national convention would be conducive to the eleva- 
tion of the standard of medical education in the United States; 

Whereas there is no mode of accomplishing so desirable an object without concert of 
action on the part of the medical societies, colleges, and institutions of all the States: 

Resolved, That the New York State Medical Society earnestly recommends a national 
convention of delegates from medical societies and colleges in the whole Union to 
convene in the city of New York on the first Monday in May, 1846, for the purpose of 
adopting some concerted action on the subject set forth in the foregoing preamble.^ 

The Association of American Medical Colleges, the American 
Medical Council, the organization of the Johns Hopkins Medical 

1 See Dr. William Henry Welch's Address before the 65th Convocation of the University of Chicago, 
Dec, 1907. President Henry S. Pritchett, "The place of the university in medical education," Amer. 
Med. Assoc, bull. Jan. 15,1910, p. 289; also under "Relations of the university to the medical school," 
President Schurman, 299, Dean Vaughan, 397, President MacLean, 312. 

2 See Wm. H. Welch, "The relation of Yale to medicine." Reprint Yale Med. Jour., Nov., 1901; 
Flexner, p. 10. 

3 First an. conf. of Council on Med. Educ, Amer. Med. Assoc, Chicago, Apr. 20, 1905, p. 5. 



STANDAKDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 77 

School in Baltimore in 1893, the lengthenmg of the course of study to 
4 years at Harvard in 1892-93, and the grading of studies in 1899-1900 
are milestones of the progress of the movement. A phenomenal 
fruition has come, however, in the last half dozen years, due chiefly 
to the conferences and work of the Council on Medical Education of 
the American Medical Association in conjunction with the repre- 
sentatives of State and Territorial licensing and examinmg boards, 
the Association of American Medical Colleges, the Southern Medical 
College Association, and the Government medical services. 

Through the work of the Council on Medical Education, created m 
1904, the first personal inspection of all medical colleges was made 
by representatives of the council in 1905-6 and 1906-7. The first 
classification of medical colleges by the council was presented to the 
house of delegates of the American Medical Association in 1907. 
The second tour of inspection of all medical colleges by the council 
was completed in 1909-10. The second classification of medical 
colleges was reported to the house of delegates, and pubhshed m 1910. 

The first conference was held in Chicago in 1905. Delegates from 
other bodies and. universities have been invited to succeeding con- 
ferences. No more marvelous chapter in the history of educational 
standards can be found than in a review of the work of these confer- 
ences, as shown by the report for the first five years. ^ 

Report op the Council on Medical Education for Year Ending June 1, 1909. 

For five years the Council on Medical Education has been working for higher and 
more uniform standards of medical education. In this time many changes for the 
better have been brought about. Such influence as the council may have had toward 
these improvements has been due largely to the following facts: 

i. The council is the committee on education of the medical profession of America, 
represented by the American Medical Association. As such, its interests are national 
and its object is the betterment of medical education in all sections of the country. 

2. It is a permanent committee, thereby exerting a constant, steady influence for 
improvement, not possible through temporary committees, however excellent their 
work might be. 

3. Its headquarters at the home of the medical profession of America and its con- 
nection with the Journal of the American Medical Association, with its extensive 
body of correspondents, made it possible to obtain much information which otherwise 
could not have been secured. 

4. An abundance of information has been collected, tabulated, and published 
regarding medical colleges, standards, students, graduates, facilities, and equipment, 
as well as much information regarding the requirements for license to practice medi- 
cine, both in this country and abroad. Information has also been collected regarding 
elementary, secondary, and collegiate education. 

5. This information, formerly not available, has thrown much light on medical 
education, revealing quite clearly problems which otherwise could not have been seen. 

6. As problems have arisen they have been presented at annual conferences on 
medical education for discussion. These annual conferences have been held under 
the auspices of the Council on Medical Education and to them are invited as delegates 

1 Proc. of the House of Delegates of the Amer. Med. Assoc., 1909, pp. 13-14. 



78 



PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 



PRELIMINARY AND MEDICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD. 
Age. 6 T 8 9 10 11 12 13 14' 15 16 17 18 19 ZO 21 22 ^3 21 25 26 ZT 28 29 

Argentine Republic. 

Austria 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chili 

Colombia 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain 

Greece 

Hungarj' 

Italy..." 

Japan 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Peru 

Portugal 



Spain..-^." 

Swedea.T-.. 

Switzerland (Zurich) 

•Turkey 

Uruguay. 

United States, 1 

United States, 2 

United States, 3 

United States, i 

United States, 5 

United States, 6 

United States, 7 

United States, 8 

A. M. A. "Ideal" 

Apparent trend of 
University Schools. 

Age. 




10 11 12 13 lit. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 25 26 27 28 29 30 

__J= Primary. ^^^= Secondarj'. ■■■= Medical. 
^=Intermediate.IZ:z:]= Collegiate. 11111111 = Hospital Year. 
iiii=Natura] Sciences with Med. Course. 
a Shows average time required to complete the medical course. 



1 



STANDARDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 79 

those who are interested and whose advice and influence may be helpful in elevating 
the standards of medical education — from the State licensing boards, State medical 
societies, confederation of examining boards, college associations, and the United 
States services, as well as from colleges of liberal arts and other interested organizations. 
They have been attended by an increasing number of delegates each year. They are 
entirely informal and are devoted to the discussion of the more urgent problems of 
medical education, the reports of which have been given wide circulation in the 
columns of the Journal of the American Medical Association and by reprints. These 
conferences have undoubtedly been a strong influence favoring higher and more 
imiform standards. 

It might be well to briefly review the work of the five annual conferences. 

FIRST CONFERENCE. 

The first conference was held in Chicago April 20, 1905. At this conference the 
questions of preliminary education, medical curriculum, and the relation of the college 
of liberal arts to the medical school were discussed, as a result of which the council 
formulated the following as the minimum standard of the American Medical Asso- 
ciation: 

(a) A preliminary education sufficient to enable the student to enter the freshman 
class of our recognized universities, (b) the passing on the credentials of such an educa- 
tion by a State official, (c) the graduation from an approved medical college requiring 
a 4 years' course of not less than 30 weeks each year, with 30 hours each week of actual 
work, (d) the passing of an examination for licensure before a State board. 

The council further formulated a so-called ideal standard which should be secured 
as rapidly as. the conditions throughout the country warranted. This ideal standard 
was briefly as follows: 

(a) A 4-year high-school education, (6) a year's university training in physics, 
chemistry, and biology, (c) 4 years of medicine proper, and (d) 1 year as interne in a 
hospital or dispensary. 

THE SECOND CONFERENCE. 

At the second conference, held in Chicago May 12, 1906, probably the most impor- 
tant facts presented were the standings of the various medical colleges based on the 
failures of their graduates in examinations before State boards. The colleges were 
divided into 3 groups: Those having less than 10 per cent of failures, those having 
from 10 to 20 per cent, and those having above 20 per cent. A fourth unclassified list 
Avas made of those colleges which had insufficient data to permit of comparison. These 
reports, which are published annually in the State board statistics prepared by the 
council, have been productive of much good in stimulating faculties to guard against 
the graduation of illy prepared students. 

THE THIRD CONFERENCE. 

At the third conference, held in Chicago April 29, 1907, a detailed report of a personal 
inspection made by members of the council of all the medical schools of the United 
States was presented. In this inspection the schools were marked on a civil-service 
basis consisting of 10 points covering the essentials of a modem medical college, these 
10 points making a possible 100. And on this basis the colleges as graded were divided 
into 3 groups. The result was as follows: An acceptable group of 82 colleges with 
marks from 70 to 100, a conditioned group of 46 colleges with marks from 50 to 70, and 
a rejected group of 32 colleges with marks below 50. 

This personal inspection of colleges has been continued and a second inspection will 
soon be completed, 



80 PEESENT STANDAKDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

THE FOURTH CONFERENCE. 

The fourth annual conference, held in Chicago April, 1908, was from many stand- 
points most encouraging and interesting. The secretary presented a graphic study 
of medical education in the various States of the Union and in the 20 most important 
countries of the world, showing the comparative position of medical education in this 
country with that of the rest of the world. 

It was revealed that, while this country had a few medical colleges equal to any in 
the world, it was nevertheless far behind other nations in standards of both preliminary 
and medical education. More encouraging was the report of a campaign carried on 
during the year by the council to secure the adoption by medical colleges of higher 
preliminary standards. This report brought out the fact that more than 50 first-class 
schools in this country had agreed to accept what has been adopted by all the rest of 
the world, i. e., a 5-year medical course. This is to be brought about by adding to our 
present preliminary requirements of a 4-year high-school course at least 1 year of 
physics, chemistry, and biology. 

This advance requirement has become so general that it will doubtless be adopted 
by all first-class schools within the next few years and thus place American medical 
education on a par with that of England, France, Germany, Austria, Canada, in fact 
with that of all our neighbors and rivals in progress and civilization. 

THE FIFTH CONFERENCE. 

At the fifth annual conference, held in Chicago, A^ml 5, 1909, the chief feature waj 
the report of a committee on medical curriculum. This committee consisted of 100 
prominent educators, representing all the departments and specialties in medicine. 
It has done a splendid piece of work, which we feel is most important and timely, 
since we are just entering on what we believe will prove to be the greatest reconstruc- 
tive period in the history of medical education in America. The recommendations 
of this committee on what constitutes a proper medical course are most interesting 
and have already attracted much attention. 

A curriculum of 4,100 hours was agreed to, divided among the various departments 

as follows: Hours. 

I. Anatomy, including histology and embryology 700 

II. Physiology and physiologic chemistry, including 80 hours of organic 

chemistry 530 

III. Pathology and bacteriology 500 

IV. Pharmacology, toxicology, and therapeutics 240 

V. Medicine, including pediatrics and nervous diseases 890 

VI. Surgery: General and special 650 

VII. Obstetrics and gynecology 240 

VIII. Diseases of the eye, ear, nose, and throat 140 

IX. Dermatology and syphilis 90 

X. Hygiene, medical economics, and medical jurisprudence 120 

Total 4, 100 

It was the unanimous opinion of the committee that a hard and fast medical curric- 
ulum, uniform for all colleges, was not desirable and not for the best interests of medical 
education. It was definitely stated, therefore, that the curriculum recommended by 
this committee was to be regarded as suggestive and educational only, and was not 
intended for adoption as an absolute and fixed requirement either by medical colleges 
or by State boards. The ciuriculum reported does not represent a minimum require- 
ment, but one which is sufficiently comprehensive to meet the present demand of 
medical education. 

A summary of the result of 7 years' study is thus stated in 1911: * 



Bui. Am. Med. Assoc, Jan. 15, 1911, 70-71. 



4 



STANDAEDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 81 

The Council on Medical Education has been at work for 7 years with the problem 
of medical education in America. In these 7 years we have studied the conditions 
pietty thoroughly, so that we are now ready to present, from our statistics and from 
our investigations, a full and complete picture of medical education as it is, and what 
it should be, to-day in America. 

We are all now familiar with the fact that American medical education is not in a 
satisfactory condition. We still have a large number of very poor schools, there being 
now altogether 129 medical colleges in this country. Six years ago there were 166. 
Of the 129 colleges which remain, however, not more than 60 or 70 are doing really 
acceptable work, or are making improvements which will enable them to do accept- 
able work. Possibly one-half of our medical schools are still in such a condition that 
it would be fortunate for American medical education and for the Ameiican people 
if they should be discontinued. Fortunately, this reduction is taking place and the 
proprietary schools are rapidly passing out of existence. 

THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF MEDICAL EDUCATION. 

Those of- us who are familiar with the situation believe that modern medical educa- 
tion needs a training in a good secondary school; a premedical course in the sciences 
of physics, chemistry, and biology; a thorough 4-year comse in a medical school, and 
lastly a practical year as an interne in a hospital. I think we all agree on that as a 
miniTrmm training necessary to prepare a student for independent practice. That 
would mean essentially a minimum of 6 years of training necessary to prepare a student 
for independent practice. That would mean essentially a minimum of 6 years of 
training from a high school, "\\1iile it is evident that such a requirement could not at 
once be put into force throughout the whole country, nevertheless I state without any 
hesitation that anything short of that as the ultimate requii'ement appears to me to 
be insufficient. 

At a meeting of the American Institute of Homeopathy, held in 
Detroit in 1909, the number of hours of the medical course was made 
4,300, devoting the 200 extra hours over that adopted by the Ameri- 
can Medical Association (4,100 hours) to materia medica and thera- 
peutics. The standard for the entrance examination is a 4-year 
high-school course or its equivalent. Two colleges of homeopathy 
require more. Those of the Universities of Michigan and of Iowa 
require two years of liberal arts study. 

The present general standards, therefore, appear in the report for 
1911 of Dr. Colwell, secretary of the council: 

Indeed, nothing should be said to disparage the excellent and commendable work 
long carried on by such agencies as the Association of American Medical Colleges, the 
American Academy of Medicine, the State Medical Licensing Boards, both individually 
and in their confederations, and by other organizations. At the same time, however, 
any positive action taken by a national body, such as the American Medical Associa- 
tion, representing as it does the organized medical profession of the United States, 
was sure to have an extensive influence. For that reason active work on the part of 
the American Medical Association through its Council on Medical Education gave 
added impetus to a nation-wide movement for better standards of medical education, 
which, by reenforcing the activities already under way, has resulted in the remarkable 
progress made during the last several years. Incidentally it should be stated that 
the work of the Council on Medical Education has been recognized abroad ^ and 



' See Journal A. M. A., Aug. 6, 1910, p. 
624C0°— 13 6 



82 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 



the council has been listed by Dr. P. J. Eijkman, of The Hague, among the organiza- 
tions of the world which are exerting an international influence in matters pertaining 
to medical education. Dr. Eijkman says that if the efforts of the Council on Medical 
Education bear fruit, and if its example is followed, "the time is not far distant when 
an international standard of requirements for the practice of medicine will be 
reached."' 

IMPROVEMENTS IN RECENT YEARS. 

Changes for the better in medical education have been particularly rapid since 
1904, when the Council on Medical Education was organized. Up to that year the 
number of medical colleges, mostly of the proprietary variety, continued to increase, 
regardless of the frequently published references to the overcrowded condition of 
the profession and regardless of reports frequently presented showing the need of 
better rather than a larger number of medical colleges. The increase in number 
continued until, in 1904, the maximum of 166 medical colleges was reached, consti- 
tuting, to use a phrase often repeated of late, practically half of the world's supply. 
The numbers of medical students and medical graduates likewise increased until 
1904, when the highest totals were reached. In that year there were 28,142 medical 
students and 5,747 graduates. 

FEWER BUT BETTER COLLEGES. 

Since 1904, however, there has been at first a gradual and then a positive decrease in 
the number of colleges until now the number has been reduced to 129 [116 in 1912]. It is 
significant to note that the positive decline has been since 1907, when the classifica- 
tion of medical colleges, based on the council's first actual inspection of all the medical 
colleges of the United States, was read at the third annual conference. Of the 44 
colleges closed since 1907, 20 colleges, were closed outright and 24 by merging with 
others. Of the 20 which became extinct, 16 had been rated in class C. This decrease, 
therefore, has been due to the closing of the weak and inferior colleges or by the merg- 
ing of two or more medical colleges, forming in practically every instance one stronger 
and better equipped college. Rather than being a serious matter, therefore, this 
decrease in the number of medical colleges has been of positive benefit, resulting as 
it has in the formation of better colleges and in the elevation of educational standards. 
Since 1904 there has likewise been a decrease in the number of medical students and 
medical graduates. 

Colleges dosed since 1907. 



How closed. 


Class A. 


Class B. 


Class C. 


Total. 


By merger 


" 


10 
4 


3 
16 


24 


Extinct 


20 










Total 




14 


19 


44 







BETTER STANDARDS OF ADMISSION. 

Not only has there been an advancement in the standards of medical education 
since 1904 through the elimination of 44 weaker colleges, but on the other hand thera 
has been a decided advancement in the standards of admission. Until 1904 only 
3, or 1.9 per cent of all medical colleges, were requiring for admission more than a 
high-school education, but since 1904 the number has increased until now 41, or 31.8 
per cent (nearly one-third) of all colleges, are requiring for admission one or more 
years of collegiate work in addition to the high-school course, and medical teaching 

' This statement doubtless has particular reference to a report and a chart showing the standards of 
" Preliminary and medical education abroad, " published first in 1907. 



STANDARDS OP MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 83 

as a whole has been placed more largely on a university basis. Another fact, however, 
brought out in chart 4 is that, although only about 14 per cent of the colleges held 
to higher admission requirements during the session of 1909-10, those colleges en- 
rolled about 20 per cent of all students. Judging from reports received, the higher 
grade colleges enrolled about 35 per cent of all medical students at the beginning of 
the piesent session. 

Other improvements. 

In the last 7 years, however, other radical improvements in medical education have 
taken place. College terms have been lengthened, new methods of teaching have 
been adopted, more salaried teachers have bean employed, more endowments secured, 
new buildings erected, better laboratories and laboratory equipment installed, and 
better hospital connections and clinical facilities secured. The last year particularly 
has witnessed many remarkable changes for the better in medical education. Several 
of our larger medical schools have received large donations, have been thoroughly 
reorganized, have secured or built teaching hospitals, and have adopted higher stand- 
ards of admission; and reports of other changes of similar importance continue to 
come in. 

BETTER STANDARDS OP LICENSURE. 

The progress for higher standards, however, has not all been confined to the medical 
colleges. The requirements of State medical licensing boards have likewise been 
considerably advanced. The statement regarding these changes is based on a careful 
study of the practice acts and board rulings and on correspondence received from the 
officers of the various boards, giving their interpretation of the laws they have been 
appointed to enforce. 

1. In 1904 apparently only 20 States had any proAdsion in their medical practice 
acts for preliminary education; now 36 have that provision. Then only 10 States 
required a standard 4-year high -school education as their minimum standard, and 
none required any college work; now 30 States require the standard high-school 
course, and 8 of these require 1 or 2 years of collegiate work in addition. Then only 4 
States conducted preliminary examinations and inspected credentials previous to or at 
the time of matriculation; now 8 States perform those duties. 

2. In 1904, 36 States required that all candidates for license be graduates of legally 
chartered medical colleges; now 44 States have the requirement. 

3. In 1904, 45 States required an examination of every applicant; now 48 require 
an examination of all excepting those already holding a license granted by some other 
State. 

4. In 1904 the boards of only 14 States had authority to refuse recognition to inferior 
or disreputable medical colleges; now 28 boards have full authority to refuse such 
recognition and 14 others have a limited or divided authority. 

5. In 1904, there were 36 States each having a single board of medical examiners. 
Since that year 3 more States have secured single boards, making 39 at the present 
time. 

6. Reciprocal relations had been established by 27 States in 1904 with 2 or more 
other States; now 34 States have such relations, and in 4 other States — Alabama, 
Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Pennsylvania — the boards have the authority to estab- 
lish such relations if they care to do so. 

7. Since 1904, 6 State boards have initiated practical tests to a certain extent at their 
examinations, thus making it possible to differentiate between applicants who have 
gone through a mere cramming process and those who have had a thorough medical 
training in laboratory and clinic. 



84 



PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Advance in State licensing requirements in seven years} 





States in which the provisions were 
in force- 


States hav- 
ing no 
such pro- 
vision in 
1911. 




In April, 
1904, 


In March, 
1911. 


Increase. 


Some requirement of preliminary education 


20 
10 


36 
30 

8 
44 
48 

6 

28 
36 
39 


10 

20 
8 

4 

3 

5 

14 
9 
3 


13 




19 




41 


Inspection of all credentials at time of matriculation and 


4 
36 
45 

1 

14 

27 
36 


S30 


That all applicants be graduates of a medical college 

That all applicants undergo an examination for Mcense . . 
Requirement of practical tests in the license examina- 
tions 


5 
!■. 

43 


Full authority by board to refuse recognition to low- 


21. 


Reciprocal relations with other States 


13. 




Id 







1 Educ. number Amer. Med. Assoc. Bull., Jan. 15, 1911, pp. 72-78. 

- Eleven States have no medical colleges, and therefore no need for this provision. 

It is iiotewortliy that not only a national, but an international or 
world standard of medicine is portended, attention to which is drawn 
by Dr. Eijkman, of The Hague, and is indicated by the chart of pre- 
liminary and medical education at home and abroad. 

Mr. Abraham Flexner's report on medical education in the United 
States and Canada, Bulletin No. 4, of the Carnegie Foundation, 
resulted in a popular agitation of the subject of standards for medical 
colleges, and brought up the influence of the Foundation to reenforce 
the standards established by the Council on Medical Education. 

The American Medical Association ideal standard of medical 
education is as follows: 

The ideal standard to be aimed at from the present viewpoint should consist of: 
(A) Preliminary education sufficient to enable the candidate to enter our recognized 
universities, such qualifications to be passed upon by the State authorities. (B) A 
course of at least one year to be devoted to physics, chemistry, and biology, such 
arrangement to be made that this year could be taken either in a college of liberal arts 
or in the medical school. (C) Four years in pure medical work, the first two of which 
should be largely spent in laboratories of anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharma- 
cology, etc., and the last two in close contact with patients in dispensaries and hospi- 
tals in the study of medicine, surgery, obstetrics, and the specialties. (D) A sixth 
year as an interne in a hospital or dispensary should then complete the medical course. 

Under such a scheme the majority of men would begin the study of medicine between 
18 and 19 years of age, and would graduate from the hospital interneship at from 24 to 
25. A college education is recognized as a desirable preparation for a limited number 
of men, but it is thought that it is not and never will be desirable to make such college 
education a requirement to the study of medicine, as it would make the age of gradua- 
tion from 27 to 28 years, which is regarded as too old a period at which the young medi- 
cal man should begin his life's work. It is obvious that this very desirable scheme 
of requirements can not be at once demanded or recommended. 

As a result of the second tour of inspection of the medical colleges, 
in view of the conditions actually existing, and with a view to the 



STANDARDS OP MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 85 

immediate needs of medical education, the comicil reported the follow- 
ing outhne of the essentials of an acceptable medical college: 

Omitting from consideration a number of the utterly worthless medical colleges, this 
outline represents in the majority of points a line considerably below the average of 
conditions existing in all the colleges of the United States and Canada. The outline 
is as follows : 

1. Strict enforcement of all standards and requirements, the college itself to be held 
responsible for any instances where they are not enforced. 

2. A requirement for admission of at least a 4-year high-school education, super- 
imposed on 8 years of grammar-school work, or the actual equivalent education, this 
to consist of 14 units, as defined by the College Entrance Examining Board and 
required by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 

3. As soon as conditions warrant, the minimum requii'ement for admission should be 
enlarged to include at least one year's college work .each in physics, chemistry, and 
biology, and a reading knowledge of at least one modern language, preferably German 
or French. 

4. A requirement that students be in actual attendance in the college within the first 
week of each annual session and thereafter. 

5. That actual attendance at classes be insisted on except for good cause, such as 
for sickness, and that no credit be given under any circumstances for less than 80 per 
cent of attendance on each course. 

6. That advanced standing be granted only to students of other acceptable colleges, 
and that in granting advanced standing there shall be no discrimination against the 
college's full-course students. 

7. Careful and intelligent supervision of the entire school by a dean or other execu- 
tive officer who holds, and has sufficient authority to carry out, fair ideals of medical 
education as interpreted by modern demands. 

8. A good system of records showing conveniently the credentials, attendance, 
grades, and accounts of the students. 

9. A fully graded com'se covering 4 years of at least 30 weeks each, exclusive of 
holidays, and at least 30 hours per week of actual work; this course should be clearly 
set forth in a carefully prepared and printed schedule of lectures and classes. 

10. Two years of work, consisting largely of laboratory work in thoroughly equipped 
laboratories in anatomy, histology, embryology, physiology, chemistry (inorganic, 
organic, and physiologic), bacteriology, pathology, pharmacology, therapeutics, and 
clinical diagnosis. 

11. Two years of clinical work, largely in hospitals and dispensaries, with thorough 
courses in internal medicine (including physical diagnosis, pediatrics, nervous and 
mental diseases), surgery (including surgical anatomy and operative surgery on the 
cadaver), obstetrics, gynecology, laryngology, rhinology, ophthalmology, otology, 
dermatology, hygiene, and medical jurisprudence. 

12. At least 6 expert, thoroughly trained instructors in the laboratory branches, 
salaried so they may devote then- entire time to instruction and to that research 
without which they can not well keep up with the rapid progress being made in their 
subjects. These instructors should rank sufficiently high to have some voice in the 
conduct of the college. There should also be a sufficient number of assistants in each 
department to look after the less important details. 

13. The medical teaching should be of at least the same degree of excellence as 
obtains in our recognized liberal arts colleges and technical schools. 

14. The members of the faculty, with a few allowable exceptions, should be gradu- 
ates of institutions recognized as medical colleges, and should have had a training in 
all departments of medicine. They should be appointed because of their ability 
as teachers and not because they happen to be on the attending staff of some hospital 
or for other like reasons. 



86 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

15. The college should own or entirely control a hospital, in order that students may 
come into close and extended contact with patients under the supervision of the 
attending staff. The hospital should have a sufficiently large numljer of patients to 
permit the student to see and study the common varieties of surgical and medical cases 
as well as a fair number in each of the so-called specialties. 

16. The college should have easily accessible hospital facilities of not less than 200 
patients, which can be utilized for clinical teaching (for senior classes of 100 students or 
less), these patients to represent in fair proportion all departments of medicine. 

17. The college should have additional hospital facilities for children's diseases, 
contagious diseases, and nervous and mental diseases. 

18. Facilities for at least 5 maternity cases for each senior student, who should have 
actual charge of these cases under the supervision of the attending physician. 

19. Facilities for at least 30 autopsies during each college session (for senior classes 
of 100 students or less). 

20. A dispensary, or out-patient department, under the control of the college, the 
attendance to be a daily average of 60 cases (for senior classes of 100 students or 
less), the patients to be carefully classified, good histories and records of the patients 
to be kept, and the material to be well used. 

21. The college should have a working medical library to include the more modern 
text and reference books and 10 or more leading medical periodicals; the library 
room to be easily accessible to students during all or the greater part of the day, to 
have suitable tables and chairs, and to have an attendant in charge. 

22. A working medical museum, having its various anatomic, embryologic, patho- 
logic, and other specimens carefully prepared, labeled, and indexed, so that any 
specimen may l)e easily found and employed for teaching purposes. 

I 23. A supply of such useful auxiliary apparatus as a stereopticon, a reflectoscope, 
carefully prepared chaits, embryologic or other models, manikins, dummies for use in 
l)andaging, a Roentgen ray or other apparatus now so generally used in medical 
teaching. 

24. The college should show evidences of reasonably modern methods in all depart- 
ments and evidences that the equipment and facilities are being intelligently used in 
the training of medical students. 

25. A statement in which the college's requirements for admission, tuition, time of 
attendance on the classes, sessions, and graduation are clearly set forth should be given, 
together with complete lists of its matriculants and latest graduating class in regular 
annual catalogues or announcements. 

DEFINITIONS OF A MEDICAL COLLEGE ' AND A MEDICAL SCHOOL. ^ 

"An institution to be ranked as a medical college must have at least 6 professors, 
giving their entire time to medical work, a graded course of 4 full years of college grade 
in medic ine, and must require for admission not less than the usual 4 years of academic 
or high-school preparation, or its equivalent, in addition to the preacademic or 
grammar-school studies." 

I By a medical school as differentiated from a medical college is meant a part of a 
university requiring for admission the equivalent of 2 years of collegiate work and 
which offers instruction- of not less than 2 years' duration, leading to the degree of 
doctor of medicine. 

Taking the above outline as a standard, although as already stated it represents in 
most particulars a very low average of the conditions actually existing, the colleges 
were rated on a civil-service basis on the scale of 100. The data relating to each college 

1 This definition of a college is based on that given in the revised ordinances of the State of New York, 
and which also was adopted by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as their standard. 

2 Based on the definition of the term "school" adopted in 1909 by the Association of American Uni- 
versities. 



STANDARDS OP MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 87 

were grouped under 10 general heads in such, manner that the groups would have as 
nearly equal weight as possible, each group allowing a possible 100 points (10 per cent), 
and the 10 groups aggregating, therefore, a possible 1,000 points (100 per cent). The 
10 heads under which the data were arranged are as follows: 

1. Showing of graduates before State boards. 

2. Requirements and enforcement of satisfactory preliminary education and the 
granting of advanced standing. 

3. Character of curriculum. 

4. Medical school buildings. 

5. Laboratory facilities and instruction. 

6. Dispensary facilities and instruction. 

7. Hospital facilities and instruction. 

8. Faculty, number of trained teachers, all time instructors, especially of the lab- 
oratory branches and extent of research work. 

9. Extent to which the school is conducted for properly teaching the science of 
medicine rather than for the profit of the faculty, directly or indirectly. 

10. Libraries, museums, charts, etc. 

Those colleges receiving a rating of 70 per cent or above are listed in class A, those 
receiving a rating of from 50 to 70 per cent in class B, and those rated below 50 per cent 
in class C. Class A colleges may be considered, therefore, as acceptable colleges, those 
of class B as colleges which require certain definite improvements to make them 
acceptable, and those of class C as colleges in which complete reorganization would be 
required to make them acceptable. 

THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN MEDICAL COLLEGES. 

The requirements for admission to and graduation from colleges holding member- 
ship are as follows: 

Preliminary education — (a) A bachelor's degree from an approved college or univer- 
sity. (6) A diploma from an accredited high school, normal school, or academy requir- 
ing for admission evidence of the completion of an 8-year course in primary and inter- 
mediate grades, and for graduation not less than 4 years of study embracing not less 
than 2 years (4 points) of Latin, 2 years (4 points) of mathematics, 2 years (4 points) of 
English, 1 year (2 points) of history, 1 year (2 points) of physics, and 6 years (12 points) 
of further credit in language, literature, history, or science, (c) An examination in 
the following branches, totaling 30 points: A. Required (16 points) — Mathematics 
(4 points), English (4 points), history (2 points), Latin (4 points), Physics (2 points). 
B. Elective (14 points): English language and literature, 4 points; language, Ger- 
man, French, Spanish, or Greek, in each not less than 2 points; solid geometry and 
trigonometry (| year each), 2 points; biology (1 year) or botany and zoology (^ year 
each), 2 points; chemistry (1 year), 2 points; physical geography and geology (^ year 
each), 1 point; physiology and hygiene (J year each), 1 point; astronomy (J year), 
1 point; drawing (^ year), 1 point. One point in any subject in a high-school or aca- 
demic course demands not less than 5 periods per week of 45 minutes each for 18 weeks. 
{d) Certificates from reputable instructors recognized by any State board of medical 
examiners duly authorized by law, or by the superintendents of public instruction in 
States having no board of examination, may be accepted in lieu of any part of this 
examination, (e) This examination must be conducted by or under the authority 
of the board of examiners or of the superintendent of public instruction of the city 
or State in which the college is located as provided for in subsection {d). In no case 
shall it be conducted by any person connected with the faculty, medical or otherwise, 
of the institution to which the student is seeking admission. 

■ A student may be allowed to enter on his medical work conditioned in not more 
than 6 points, and these conditions must be removed by satisfactory examination 
before he is allowed to enter on i\ie second year of his medical course. 



88 PEESENT STANDAEDS OF HIGHEE EDUCATION. 

Advanced standing — Colleges in membership in this association may honor the official 
credentials presented by students from other colleges having the standard require- 
ments maintained by members of this association, excepting for the fourth year of their 
course, but no member shall admit a student to advanced standing without first com- 
municating with the college from which such student desires to withdraw, and receiv- 
ing from the dean of such college a direct written communication certifying to the 
applicant's professional and moral qualifications and to the exact work he had done 
in said college. 

The entire course of 4 years in the college of medicine shall consist oi at least 4,000 
hours for each student, and shall be grouped in divisions and subdivided into sub- 
jects, each division and subject to be allotted the number of hours as shown in the 
following schedule : 

Division 1. — Anatomy, 720 hours (18 per cent). Division 2. — Physiology and 
chemistry, 600 hours (15 per cent). Division 3. — Pathology, bacteriology, and hygiene, 
450 hours (11.25 per cent). Division 4. — Pharmacology, materia medica, and thera- 
peutics, 240 hours (6 per cent). Division 5. — Medicine and medical specialties, 970 
hours (24.25 per cent). Division 6. — Surgery and surgical specialties, 720 hours (18 
per cent). Division 7. — Obstetrics and gynecology, 300 hours (7.5 per cent). 

Colleges may reduce the number of hours in any subject not more than 20 per cent, 
provided that the total number of hours in a division is not reduced. ■\i\Tiere the 
teaching conditions in a college are best subserved, the subject may be, for teaching 
purposes, transferred from one division to another. WTien didactic and laboratory 
hours are specified in any subject, laboratory hours may be substituted for didactic 
hours. 

Medical education. — Candidates for the degree of doctor of medicine shall have 
attended 4 courses of study in 4 calendar years, each annual course to have been of not 
less than 30 teaching weeks' duration, and at least 10 months shall intervene between 
the beginning of any course and the beginning of the preceding course. No time 
credit shall be given to holders of a bachelor's degree, but subject credit may be given 
on satisfactory examination. Four years of residence in a medical college shall be 
required of all candidates for the degree of doctor of medicine. 

The entire course of 4 years shall consist of at least 4,000 hours, divided into the sub- 
jects as shown, and no college shall be recognized that falls below this standard over 20. 
per cent in any one branch or over 10 per cent in the total. Laboratory or clinic hours 
may be substituted for didactic hours. 

Each student shall be obliged to attend 80 per cent of the exercises in every annual 
course of study for which he seeks credit. No student shall be given credit on exami- 
nation unless he attains a grade of at least 70 per cent or its equivalent in any other 
marking system. And no student shall be graduated unless he shall have attained a 
passing grade in each and all subjects of the required curriculum. 

A college which gives less than a 4 years' course of study, but does not graduate 
students, and is possessed of other required qualifications, may be admitted to mem- 
bership. 

Each medical college in membership in the association shall print in every annual 
catalogue or announcement a table of the total number of hours' work given in said 
college, arranged both by subjects and years. ^ 

A statement of the entrance requirements and of the didactic and 
laboratory portions of the medical course at colleges requiring pre- 
paratory studies beyond the high-school course equivalent to one or 
more years at college, prepared by Dr. N. P. Colwell, is here given :^ 

1 Med. Educ. in United States. Statistics foi; college session of 1908-9, Aug. 14, 1909, pp. 544, 545. 549, 
552, and amendment to the constitution of the association adopted in 1911. 

2 Bull. Amer. Acad, of Med., June, 1909. 



STANDARDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 



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PRESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 



SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS IN THE COLLEGE YEAR OR YEARS. 

As has been noted, practically all of the schools have specified or recommended 
that certain subjects be included in the one or more years of college work. The sub- 
jects specifically mentioned were physics, chemistry, biology, and languages. All are 
agreed regarding the requirement of physics, chemistry, and biology (botany or 
zoology); 6 require French or German, while 5 require both; 3 specify Latin as a 
requirement, 1 specifies English, 1 trigonometry, and 1 recommends psychology. 

MINIMUM REQUIREMENT IN PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND BIOLOGY. 

An attempt was made to secure the exact number of hours required by each college 
both of the didactic and lalioratory portions of physics, chemistry, and biology. In 
German and French the "reading knowledge" constitutes the best measurement. 
The results of the investigation are given as follows: 

Hours of physics, chemistry, and biology. 





Physics. 


Chemistry. 


Biology. 


School. 


Didac- 
tic. 


Labo- 
ratory. 


Total. 


Didac- 
tic. 


Labo- 
ratory. 


Total. 


Didac- 
tic. 


Labo- 
ratory. 


Total. 


Johns Hopkins 


128 


96 


224 
54 
240 
160 
144 
160 
160 
288 
232 
180 




160 


160 
180 
370 
320 
224 
384 
256 
320 
232 
180 




192 


192 




54 








110 
128 
64 
128 

128 
108 
108 


260 
192 
160 
256 
168 
192 
144 
72 


36 
96 
32 
64 
64 
96 
108 
108 


72 
144 
160 
128 
320 
256 
144 

72 


108 


University of California. 

University of Missouri 

University of Minnesota 

University of North Dakota.. 

University of Wisconsin 

University of Nebraska 

Wake Forest 


64 
64 
96 
96 
160 
108 
108 


96 
80 
64 
64 
128 
144 
72 


240 
192 
192 
384 
352 
232 
180 












184 

■■■"igo' 






263 
■■■"266' 






213 


Average of didactics 

and laboratories 

Constnicted average... 


103 
100 


93 
90 


96 
90 


178 
170 


67 
00 


166 
160 


220 



The figures given above represent the work required in the liberal arts college 
courses of the 10 colleges which made specific requirements. The majority require 
that additional preliminary work in physics and chemistry must have been taken 
in the high school. 

STATE LICENSING BOARDS. 

Hardly second to the universities, colleges, and the influence of the 
medical associations to exact standards is the importance of having 
a single medical licensing board, whose members are selected because 
of their special fitness for the work involved and apart from politics. 
In many States "diploma laws," by which the presentation of the 
diploma of a medical college admitted to practice, or by wliich the 
faculty of a State university performed the functions of an examining 
board, prepared the way for a new subject. South Carolina had a 
State examining board, but it was in Minnesota that the legislature 
of 1877 passed a new medical practice act, to be thereafter known as 
the examination law, and creative of an independent State board of 
medical examiners. This became a substitute for the diploma law, 
which made the faculty of the department of medicine of the State 



STANDARDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 91 

university an examining board. The example of JMinnesota has been 
followed universally. Now all States except New Mexico require an 
examination of all apphcants for- license and 36 make provision for 
preliminary education, 6 requiring 1 or 2 years of college work as the 
minimum preliminary requirement.^ 

We now have in our 49 States and Territories 82 different boards 
of medical examiners, including the sectarian boards. It is also of 
great importance that in each State there should be only one portal 
of entry to the practice of medicine. The following point made in the 
council's report deserves emphasis: 

We have in some States one portal for those with ample qualifications but special 
gateways by which ignorant and incompetent practitioners, professing to adhere to 
special methods of treatment, can also get in. In the majority of States, after the 
representatives of these cults are licensed, even with the lower standards, they are 
granted or allowed to have privileges of unrestricted practice. This one portal of 
entry, already adopted in some States, should be a fixed educational standard to 
which all schools professing to train medical practitioners should have to comply. 
Graduation from a medical college holding to that standard should be required as 
well as the State license examination. ^ 

The American standard, according to the report, it is to be noted, 
is not an extreme ultimatum and does not encourage the requirement 
of 4 years of collegiate preliminary education. The practicability 
of a minimum entrance requirement of 2 years of work in a college of 
liberal arts is shown by the fact that we now have not less than 28 
medical schools requiring the 2 collegiate years: 

Schools requiring 2 or more years of college education; year ivhen first required. 

Began. 

Johns Hopkins University, Medical Department 1893 

Harvard Medical School 1900 

Western Reserve University, Medical Department 1901 

University of Chicago, Rush Medical College 1904 

University of California, Medical Department 1905 

University of Minnesota, College of Medicine and Surgery 1907 

University of North Dakota, College of Medicine 1907 

University of Wisconsin, College of Medicine 1907 

Cornell University, Medical College 1908 

Wake Forest College, School of Medicine 1908 

Leland Stanford Junior University, Department of Medicine 1909 

Yale Medical School 1909 

University of Kansas, School of Medicine 1909 

University of Michigan, College of Medicine 1909 

University of Nebraska, College of Medicine 1909 

University of South Dakota, College of Medicine 1909 

University of Colorado, School of Medicine 1910 

Indiana University, School of Medicine 1910 

State University of Iowa, College of Medicine 1910 

State University of Iowa, College of Homeopathic Medicine 1910 

1 Proc. of House of Delegates, Amer. Med. Assoc, 1909, p. 16. 

2 Ibid., 1910, p. 14. 



92 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Began. 

University of Michigan, College of Homeopathic Medicine 1911 

Drake University, College of Medicine 1910 

University of Missouri, Department of Medicine ." . 1910 

Dartmouth Medical School 1910 

Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons 1910 

Syracuse University, College of Medicine 1910 

University of Pennsylvania, Medical Department 1910 

University of Utah, Medical Department 1910 

The 21 following medical colleges have announced at least one year 
of collegiate preparation : ^ 

Northwestern University. 

Fordham University. 

Hahnemann Medical College of the 

Pacific. 
Denver and Gross College of Medicine. 
Howard University. 
Kansas Medical College. 
Tulane University. 
St. Louis University. 
University Medical College, Kansas City. 
Washington University, St. Louis. 
University of Cincinnati. 



College of Physicians and Surgeons, 

Cleveland. 
University of Oregon. 
University of Texas. 
University of Virginia. 
West Virginia University. 
Marquette University. 
Wisconsin College of Physicians and 

Surgeons. 
Medical School of Maine. 
Boston University. 
University of Vermont. 

At least 6 medical colleges provide an optional fifth year: Boston 
University; Indiana University; Rush Medical College; St. Louis 
University; University of Nebraska; University and Bellevue Hos- 
pital Medical College. 

One requires a fifth year, beginning with the class which entered in 
1911: University of Minnesota College of Medicine. 

Dr. Colwell, the diligent secretary of the Council on Medical Educa- 
tion, has given an outline of the points which should be taken up in 
the inspection of all colleges. In other words, he shows how practi- 
cally the standards may be applied. To further illuminate the stand- 
ards, his points are given. ^ 

METHODS OP INVESTIGATION. 

1. The character of the college. — Inquiry should be made to learn whether it is a stock 
corporation or whether a department of a university; whether its finances are controlled 
by the faculty or by a separate board of trustees and, if a department of a university, 
what control the latter has of the finances and standards. If there are departments 
of pharmacy and dentistry, it should be learned to what extent the students are taught 
together and the differences, if any, in the preliminary requirements. 

2. Finances. — ^The income from students' fees, endowments, or other sources should 
be learned, as well as the various items of expenditure. Financial statements should 
be studied, if available. The number of students enrolled and the tuition fees should 
be noted. 

3. Faculty. — The relation of the faculty members to the various chairs should be 
learned, and, when chairs are vacated for any reason, how successors are chosen. The 

1 Proc. Amer. Med. Assoc, 1910, pp. 12, 13, 14, 15. 

2 Med. Educ. in the U. S., 1909, pp. 513-14. 



STANDARDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 93 

number of salaried instructors should be learned, the amount of time devoted to 
teaching, and the subjects handled by each. The qualifications of the faculty mem- 
bers is, of course, a matter of much importance. 

4. Entrance requirements. — The entrance records should be inspected and also the 
original credentials handed in by the students. Special note should be made of the 
institutions granting the credentials and from any source possible a knowledge of these 
institutions obtained in order that a proper valuation of the credentials can be made. 
If any outside party, such as a high-school principal or the county superintendent of 
schools, passes on the credentials or conducts the entrance examinations for the medical 
college, he should be interviewed and his methods learned. 

5. Advanced standing. — The methods of granting advanced standing from other in- 
stitutions should be learned and note made of the medical schools from which creden- 
tials have been accepted. 

6. Length of course. — The dates of beginning and ending the sessions should be 
obtained and inquiry made regarding holidays, time allowed for matriculation, and the 
requirements of attendance at classes. 

7. Character of the curriculum. — The lecture or class schedule actually in use by the 
college should be studied to 'earn whether the course is graded, to see what subjects 
are being taught and by what methods — lectm-e, laboratory, or clinic. If clinics are 
mentioned it should be learned whether they are held at the college dispensary or at 
hospitals, and what hospitals. 

8. Buildings. — The condition of the buildings as regards care and utility should be 
noted. Ample space for the accommodation of the classes and ample provision for 
light, heat, and ventilation are of more importance than architectural beauty. Gen- 
eral cleanliness is important since aseptic methods can not well be taught in filthy 
buildings and laboratories. 

9. Laboratories. — The number of laboratories, the subjects taught in each, the equip- 
ment and the evidences of recent active work are of much importance. This furnishes 
a fair idea as to whether or not the college is keeping up to date in its methods of teach- 
ing. Any evidences of original research should be noted. The inspector should ex- 
amine students' notebooks, tracings, or other evidence of students' work. The presence 
of an all-time salaried.instructor and the character of his work are usually indicated in 
the appearance of the laboratory and equipment. According to the subject taught in 
the laboratory, the following points should be noted: 

(a) Anatomy. — The amount and character of the dissecting material should be noted 
and whether modern methods of embalming are used by which dissection is made 
more safe and pleasant than by the old methods. The use of cadavers for operative 
siu-gery and the use of frozen cross sections, or other prepared anatomic specimens, 
charts, or other modern adjuncts should be noted. 

(6) Physiology. — In any laboratory which is at all equipped for teaching physiology 
the inspector will invariably see such apparatus as kymographs, levers, time markers, 
electrical apparatus, etc. The presence of animals and frogs will be additional 
evidence of modern methods. Students' individual work, such as notebooks, tracings, 
etc., will furnish a good idea of the work done. 

(c) Chemistry. — Here cleanliness is an important consideration. The presence and 
character of the apparatus and reagent bottles will indicate whether the work is 
limited to general chemistry or whether organic and physiologic chemistry are also 
taught. Out-lines of the courses taught should be studied, if available. 

{d) Histology and embryology. — The supply and character of mircoscopes, micro- 
tomes, bottles of blocked specimens, or cut sections will usually be seen. Any addi- 
tional apparatus, such as stereopticons, charts, etc., should be noted. Evidences of 
active work by teacher or students are important. For embryology the same appa- 
ratus and in addition the presence of incubators, charts, models, or other adjuncts 
should be noted. 



94 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

(e) Bacteriology. — An ample supply of good oil-immersion microscopes is a necessity. 
Note should also be made of sterilizers, incubators, test tubes, prepared media (potato, 
gelatin, agar-agar, etc.), and cultures. Cleanliness in this laboratory is of particular 
importance for the sake of the student himself as well as for the reliability of his work. 
The presence or use of animals and the manner of caring for them should be noted. 

(/) Pathology. — An ample supply of microscopes is necessary, unless those used in 
histology or bacteriology are easily accessible. The number of gross and microscopic 
material should be noted. If any postmortems are being done by a careful instructor, 
there will usually be evidences of it in a supply of preserved gross specimens in this 
laboratory or in the museum. 

(g) Pharmacology, materia medica, and therapeutics. — Note should be made of labo- 
ratories for these subjects, particularly the first, and any available outlines of work 
should be studied. 

(h) Clinical laboratories. — Of great importance are the facilities for training students 
to make the various laboratory diagnostic tests of blood, urine, sputum, etc., and note 
should be made of any laboratories for the purpose and whether they are amply 
equipped with microscopes, reagents, stains, burettes, blood-counting outfits, etc. 
Small laboratories for this purpose are sometimes found in hospitals, in which case it 
should be learned whether the students have regular work there or whether the work 
is all done by the internes. 

(i) Other laboratories. — Any advanced research, public health, or other laboratories 
should be noted, but particular inquiry should be made as to the part such have in the 
training of medical students, since that is the chief function of the medical college. 

10. Dispensary. — It should be noted whether a suite of rooms or a single room or 
merely the college office is used for dispensary purposes. The sanitary condition of 
these rooms, the equipment, and the evidences of active work are important. If pos- 
sible the visit should be made during the regular dispensary hours, that it may be seen 
how many patients are in attendance and what part the students have in the exami- 
nation and care of these patients. The records of patients should be inspected and the 
average daily or weekly attendance noted. 

11. Hospitals. — All hospitals at which the college claims to hold clinics should be 
visited and evidence obtained regarding the actual attendance of students. The aver- 
age number of patients in the hospital and particularly the average number of free 
or ward cases which can be used for teaching purposes should be learned. The num- 
ber of clinics per week held in each hospital should be noted and whether they appear 
on the lecture schedule or not. The amount and character of the work done by the 
students in the examination and treatment of patients is of particular importance, as 
well as the opportunity for training in the various departments of medicine, surgery, 
gynecology, obstetrics, pediatrics, etc. 

12. Maternity work. — Special inquiry should be made regarding the number of cases 
required of each senior student, the extent of the student's responsibility in the han- 
dling and care of each case, the number of cases obtained and where they are obtained. 
Maternity wards of hospitals should be visited and the actual number of patients noted. 

13. Library. — If the college has a medical library, note should be made of its acces- 
sibility to students and the arrangements for the students' comfort, the presence of a 
librarian, the number of modern and useful text and reference books and the number 
of useful medical periodicals. Only too often there will be found a lot of old, out-of- 
date volumes of no particular use to medical students. Of far more importance than 
the mere presence of a medical library are the evidences that it is used and useful in the 
training of medical students. 

14. Museum. — It should be noted whether there is a good supply of modern useful 
anatomic, pathologic, surgical, obstetric, or other specimens or whether the collection 
consists merely of old, useless curiosities; whether the specimens are labeled; whether 
an index is kept, and, in connection with the pathologic specimens, whether the clini- 



STANDAEDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 95 

cal histories are systematically filed for reference. In fact, the impoitant point, as with 
the medical library, is the extent to which this museum is used in medical teaching. 

15. Special features. — Note should be made of any special features, euch as freezing 
plants for preserving cadavers, animal houses or dog hospitals, and of any special appa- 
ratus, as refiectoscopes, Roentgen-ray outfits, charts, models, manikins, etc. 

16. Supplementary information. — Besides the information obtained directly through 
the inspection, other sources should be looked to for whatever will aid in forming an 
accurate idea of what the college is doing. The finished product, the graduates of the 
colleges, should be considered. The success or the failure of its graduates at State 
license examinations, their success and standing among practitioners and educators, the 
places they secure in hospitals, public health positions and elsewhere wherein they can 
show the training received while in the medical college — all these facts are of much 
importance. 

OBJECTIONS TO A RIGID STANDARD CURRICULU]M. 

It is too early to have a rigid and specific standard curriculum. 
Medical education is still in a transitional stage. As Prof. Welch 
points out, the recommendations of the Council on Medical Educa- 
tion are made to be suggestive and must not be considered obligatory 
in detail. The curriculum should have at least occasional elective 
courses, with an irreducible minimum of the fundamental branches. 
Sound pedagogy and experience, in my mind, confirm the opinion of 
Prof. Welch, that the present sharp segregation of the laboratory 
subjects in the first 2 years and the medical and surgical subjects m 
the last 2 must give way to a distribution of these courses through 
4 years by some method of concentration. Welch says: 

As regards the arrangement of the curriculum, the general consensus of opinion is 
that the so-called laboratory subjects — most inappropriately called the scientific 
subjects, because medicine and surgery are equally as scientific — should occupy the 
first 2 years and the clinical courses the last 2 years. It is a question which may 
fahly be debated; it is still an open one, whether the student should not be.brought 
into contact with patients at an earlier period than this, whether there should not be 
some sort of clinical training before this period. I think that the student should, 
in the second year, come into contact with patients. We are going to adjust our 
course, if possible, to this end, so that the student at the.end of the second trimester 
of the second year be introduced into clinical methods, practically, through physical 
diagnosis. That would enable him during his long vacation to do some work in the 
dispensaries. It would be a very decided improvement. In France the student 
begins with clinical work — an (5ld-fashioned way; he comes into contact immediately 
with patients. 1 

OBJECTIONS TO REQUIRED COLLEGIATE PREPARATION. 

The department of education of the State of New York has not 
seen its way clear to require more than a 4 years' high-school course 
for admission to medical colleges. It voices the usual objections to 
formulating uniform regulations for the practice of a profession 
throughout the United States. It urges the difference m the density 
of the population, due to natural conditions, with the resultant 

1 Assoc, of Amer. Med. Col., 20th annual meeting, 1910, pp. 62-58. 



96 PKESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

differences in facilities of intercommunication — which seems to be 
little appreciated by the advocates of national legislation looking to 
uniform standards. With such an experience in the United States 
as that afforded by New York State through the more than half a 
century of its experimentation in the regulation of professional 
practice, and with the fuller information of the same experiment in 
Europe available, it is surprising that speakers dream of the possi- 
bility of uniform standards for populations varying in density from 
Massachusetts, with 371 inhabitants to each square mile, New York 
with 171, Ohio with 110, Michigan with 44, and California with 11.^ 
On the other hand, Johns Hopkins, followed by Harvard, Columbia, 
and Cornell, requires a bachelor's degree for those who would become 
candidates for the M. D. degree, though modifications in the case of 
Harvard make possible entrance with 2 years of liberal arts. It 
seems certain that the standard of 2 years of liberal arts will prevail. 



The first degree in medicine was conferred at Harvard in 1788. 
Before 1811 the degree conferred upon graduates of the school was 
that of Bachelor of Medicine. Beginning with 1811 the degree has 
been Doctor of Medicine. Inconsistently with the well-established 
American usage of bachelor's degrees in law, theology, and engineer- 
mg, the M. D. degree is given universally. There are some signs that 
the M. D. degree may be put on a parity with the doctor's degree in 
other faculties, as more than 4 years may be required in the medical 
course, and research and success m hospital practice are emphasized. 
The combined courses in liberal arts and medicine have resulted in 
seven years' A. B. and M. D. degree, and a six years' course with 
a B. S. and M. D. degree, in effect making a specific if not a lower 
B. S. degree. The preliminary medical courses in independent 
literary colleges, which were constructed to gain a year of advanced 
credit in the colleges of medicine when the latter required 4 years in 
their courses and gave a year's advanced credit for a bachelor's 
degree, have practically disappeared. As early as 1876 preliminary 
medical courses were offered at Cornell. A little later Yale and 
in 1887 the University of Wisconsin announced a definite course in 
general science antecedent to the study of medicine.^ Commencing 
about 1888 medical colleges have given credit for such work, per- : 
mitting college graduates to enter the second year. In 1896 the 
medical practice act in New York was changed so as to preclude the 
granting of such advanced standing, though the statute was amended 
in 1903 givmg the board of regents the right to permit such appli- 
cants to have certain recognition. The requirement that every appli- 

1 Rep. on Higher Educ. in the State of New York, 1910, p. 197. 

2 Third an. conf. of the Council on Med. Educ. A. M. A., 1907, p. 27. 



STANDARDS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS. 97 

cant for a license should have been 4 years in residence in a medical 
college was set up in a statute in Minnesota in 1898, but was not 
applied by the examination board of Minnesota to the recognition of 
a college until 1904. The medical boards in Kentucky, Michigan, 
Iowa, and a number of other States have put in force a similar 
provision. 

With the adoption of the 2 years of collegiate preliminary educa- 
tion, the difficulty for the independent colleges has also disappeared, 
provided they give proper instruction in chemistry, physiology, and 
biology. The pressure of these colleges uicidentally established the 
development of a fifth medical year. The University of Chicago 
accommodated them, and thus became one of the first to have a 
fifth year in operation. It was announced as follows: 

Beginning with the year 1905-6, & fifth year was added to the curriculum which, 
until further announcement, is optional. The work of this year will be that of — 

A. Graduate work in one of the departments of the college, either as a graduate 
student or as a fellow; or 

B. An interneship in a hospital imder the following conditions: (1) Each student 
taking such work will be under the constant supervision of the faculty, by whom the 
hospital in which the intemeship is taken must be approved. (2) The student must 
present evidence of thorough clinical work, and an acceptable thesis, involving 
creditable original work. (3) He may be required to pass a special examination at 
the end of the year. 

On the successful completion of this fifth year he will receive the degree of doctor 
of medicine, cum laude. 

The requirement of a fifth year, to be spent as interne in an 
approved hospital or m laboratory studies in the medical college ia 
preparation for teaching, was established by the University of Min- 
nesota for all students entering in September, 1911, and thereafter. 
Furthermore, all students entering in September and thereafter must 
secure the degree of B. A. or B. S. from that university or an 
approved college before the M. D. will be conferred. 

The opposition of these literary colleges could not overcome the 
demands of the licensing boards for 4 years of actual residence in 
the college of medicine, and the colleges of medicine did not believe 
that the general mstruction in the scientific branches could be equiva- 
lent to that given and applied in the medical laboratories in the same 
subject.^ 

StTMMARY. 

The practical bearing upon the life and death of mankind of 
medical education has made the development and coordination of 
medical education with general education more than an academic 

1 For a discussion pro and con, see the combined course for the degree of A. B. or B. S., and M. D. 
John Milton Dodson, reprint from Jour, of Amer. Med. Assoc, May 22, 1909. 

62400°— 13 7 



98 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

question, and has accelerated the movement for the solution of 
several educational problems. It has made clear that the detached 
professional school must become an integral part of a university, 
that commercialism, even in the subtle form of professional promotion 
or fame, must be displaced, and that educational institutions must be 
supplemented by the State in medical practice acts and expert 
examining boards. The advances of science and of medicine by 
which medicine is the application of science, including the science of 
psychology, to the prevention and cure of disease, have made such 
drafts upon the time of the student and so added to the cost of 
instruction that a reorganization of education outside medicine from 
the bottom to the top has been demanded. 

As "one touch of nature makes the whole world kin," medicine, 
affecting universal humanity, promotes study, national and inter- 
national, in medical education, and in its ramifications with general 
education.' 

'Of. "The interest of the public in high standards of professional education," Carnegie Foundation, 
3d an. rep., pp. 159-103, and "The business of law and medicine v. The profession of law and medicine," 
pp. 1G3-I(3b, and "The college and university in relation to medical education," 5th an. rep., pp. 40-43. 



CHAPTER IV. 
STANDARDS OF LAW SCHOOLS. 

Analogous to the early apprentice system in theology and medi- 
cine, the student of law for the first 200 years in the United States 
read law with some practitioner and was the office clerk. Small 
groups of students gathered about some distinguished lawyer, and 
so there appeared at Litchfield, Conn., a group and school of great 
distinction in its day. 

The oldest of the law schools now existing in the United States 
is that of Harvard. In the autumn of 1815 it was determined to 
establish a professorship of law, in accordance with the will of Isaac 
Eoyall, Esq., dated May 26, 1773. The chair was called the Royall 
Professorship of Law. May 14, 1817, at a meeting of the president 
and fellows of Harvard College it was voted that some counselor 
learned in the law be elected, to be denominated ^'a University 
Professor of Law," who shall reside at Cambridge and open and 
keep a school for the instruction of graduates of this or any other 
university, and of such others as, according to the rules of admission 
as to attorneys, may be admitted after 5 years' study in the office 
of some counselor. 

The degree of bachelor of laws was instituted, to be conferred 
upon the student after 18 months' (or 3 terms') study at the uni- 
versity school and the residue of the novitiate in the office of some 
counselor of the supreme court of the Commonwealth or who shall 
have studied 3 years, or if not graduate of any college 5 years, in the 
school.^ Even in 1857 the Harvard catalogue admitted that no 
examination and no preliminary course of previous study was neces- 
sary for admission, but if. the student is not a graduate of some 
college he must be at least 19 years of age and produce testimonials 
of good moral character. In 1870 the course prescribed for the 
degree was lengthened to 2 years, and all the subjects of each year 
were taught every year. The present 3 years' course dates from 1877. 
Special students were admitted without examination as late as 1893. 
In the year 1896-97 the rule came into force by which only gradu- 
ates of approved colleges and persons qualified to enter the senior 
class of Harvard were admitted as regular students. Under the 
present rule, adopted in 1899, only graduates of approved colleges 
will be admitted as regular students. 

1 Catalogue of the Harvard Law School, 1854-55, p. 21. 



100 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

For many j^ears before and after the middle of the nineteenth 
century the opening sentence of the annual catalogue of Harvard 
read: 

STANDARDS OF LAW SCHOOLS. 

The design of this Institution [not college or school] is to afford a complete course 
of legal education for gentlemen intended for the Ijar in any of the United States 
except in matters of mere local law and practice, and also a systematic course of 
studies in commercial jurisprudence for those who intend to devote themselves 
exclusively to mercantile piu-suits. 

The catalogue of 1852-53 follows the course of instruction for 
the bar with a separate course as follows: 

The course of instruction for the mercantile profession is more limited and embraces 
the principal branches only of jurisprudence; namely, the law of agency, of partner- 
ship, of liailments, of bills of exchange and promissory notes, of insiu-ance, of ship- 
ping, navigation, and other maritime laws, of sales and, if the student desire it, of con- 
stitutional law. 

It is interesting to note that we have here a germ of the university 
school of business, or of commerce, which appeared as a separate 
organization at the begimiing of the twentieth century. 

Yale quickly followed Harvard. The catalogue for 1824 con- 
tained a list of law students, although no announcement was made 
concerning the course of instruction. The catalogue for 1826 for 
the first time described the work of the law school, but no degrees 
were conferred until 1843. The length of the course from the found- 
ing of the school to 1896 was one of 2 years. It was then extended 
to 3 years. The graduate course was established in 1876. The 
Yale law school claims to have been the first law school in America 
or England having a course leading to the degree of doctor of civil 
law. 

Among the original schools contemplated in Mr. Jefferson's plan 
for the organization of the University of Virginia was: 

"Law, municipal and foreign; embracing the general principles, theory, and prac- 
tice of jurisprudence, together with the theory and principles of constitutional gov- 
ernment." Accordingly the school of law was established in 1826, and has been in 
continuous operation since, even during the 4 years of the Civil "War. From its 
inception until J 894 the course comprised the work of a single year. With the session 
of 1894-95 a 2 years' course was inaugurated, which continued up to the session of 
1909-10, when the coiurse was extended to 3 years. 

The law school of New York University was established in 1835. 

In the same year (1835) the board of trustees of Indiana College 
selected its first j^rofessor of law, and when the college in 1838 
became the Indiana University, the act of the legislature required that 
a course of law should be given in it. The school was opened in 1842, 
and it is believed to be the first State university law school estab- 
lished west of the Alleghenies. 



STANDARDS OF LAW SCHOOLS. lOl 

The school of law of Columbia was established in 1858. The 
department of law of the University of Michigan was organized in 
1859 ; of Wisconsin and Iowa in 1868. The organization of law schools 
was gradual; they were less numerous than the medical schools, 
and there was not a flood of proprietary schools as in medicine. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION. 

Tliere were no requirements at the beginning in the best schools. 
As late as 1874 candidates for admission, for example in Wisconsin, 
were required simply to pass examinations in the ordinary English 
branches. Gradually the requirement of a high-school course was 
made, at first of a 3 years' course. Within a decade the requirement 
has been made that of a 4 years' high-school course or the require- 
ments for admission to the liberal arts college of the institution. 
Harvard was a pathfinder in requiring a bachelor's degree for admis- 
sion, but at fii'st the requirement practically was a paper requirement, 
because bachelors' degrees from the numerous so-called colleges were 
very freely accepted. Says Bush: 

In 1829 tliere was neither an entrance nor a final examination. The comse 
nominally of 2 years really permitted the student to acquire no more than he could 
have acquu-ed in 1 year's systematic study. This condition lasted until 1870, when 
radical reforms were introduced. * * * In 1877 the standard of the school was 
again raised by extending the com-se from 2 to 3 years, and in that year entrance 
examinations were established, the candidates examined in Caesar, Cicero, Virgil, 
and Blackstone's Commentaries. 

Since that time increase in the number of students who were also graduates of a 
college has been steady — an indication of wider recognition and of the advantages 
of a college education as a base for professional success. 

The university in many cases was imposed upon and received 
men with bachelor's degrees which scarcely represented the training 
of a first-class high school; it then began to make a list of colleges 
for its own use and now defends itself from abuse by openly sug- 
gesting in the catalogue that the persons who would be admitted 
without examination as candidates for the degree of bachelor of 
laws be : 

1. Graduates of college^ of high gi-ade upon producing then- diplomas. 

2. Graduates of other colleges of approved standing upon producing then- diplomas 
together with an official certificate that they ranked in the first thii-d of the class on 
the work of the senior year. 

UNCLASSIFIED STUDENTS. 

The following persons will be admitted as unclassified students : 

1. Graduates of colleges who are not admissible as regular students. 

2. Graduates of law schools having a 3-year course for their degi-ee. 

Persons admitted as unclassified students must, in order to receive a degi'ee, obtain 
a mark within 5 per cent of that required for the honor degree. 



102 PRESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 

SPECIAL STUDENTS. 

Persons who have never received a degree, but who have attained the age of 21 
years, will, in rare instances, be admitted as special students by special vote of the 
faculty. 

Columbia followed the example of Harvard. In the main no 
reputable institution requires less than a 4-year high-school course, 
and the leading institutions are feeling their way toward a require- 
ment of 2 years of collegiate preparation in addition to the high- 
school course. The announcement by the University of Michigan ^ 
of the gradual approach to the requirement of 2 years of collegiate 
preparation is symptomatic: 

In the year 1912, and thereafter until further notice, the requirements for admission 
to the department will be increased by the addition to the high-school course now 
required of a year of university or college work. In 1912, and thereafter, candidates 
must present a certificate showing the completion of 1 year of university or college 
work in an institution approved by the faculty of the department or its equivalent. 
Within a reasonable time after 1912, it may be expected that a second year of uni- 
versity or college work will be added to the requirements for admission to the depart- 
ment as candidate for a degree. 

Yale had clearly enunciated the 2-years' collegiate preliminary 
requirement, but in 1911 asked college graduation. Several of the 
institutions now require 1 year of liberal arts or announce 2 years 
with certain provisions by which persons lacking in the 2-year prepa- 
ration may be admitted. 

The terms of admission to the undergraduate department of com- 
mon law in the Catholic University of America well state the require- 
ments of the institutions still receiving intrants on the basis of a high- 
school education : 

Applicants for admission to this department must have received a high-school 
education or its equivalent; must be of good moral character and studious habits; 
and must have complied with all the rules in force in the State where they expect to 
practice in regard to registration. Students pursuing courses for the degrees of 
bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, etc., in the other departments of this uni- 
versity may take a portion of the first year law courses in this department during their 
junior and senior years, and will be given credit for whatever work they may accom- 
plish should they afterwards become candidates for the degree of bachelor of laws. 

Tlie requirement of the State of New York, established by the State 
education department, does not rise beyond a high-school preparation.^ 

The process of advancing the standards and the approximate date 
of the general advance is well illustrated by the history of the law 
school of the University of Wisconsin. From 1868 to 1874 the 
course of study covered but 1 year, and no requu-ements as to admis- 
sion were exacted. 

In 1874 candidates for admission were required to pass examinations in the ordinary 
English branches. In 1881 the course of study was extended to 2 years, and candi- 

1 Catalogue, 1910-11, p. 309. 2 Handbook 27, Higher Education— Law, 26, 31, 32. 



STANDARDS OP LAW SCHOOLS. 103 

dates were required to have a fair English education. In 1894 the course was extended 
to 3 years. In 1896 the requirements for admission were made the same as in the col- 
lege of letters and science. In 1905 candidates for degrees were required to present 
additional credits equivalent to the freshman year of the college of letters and science. 
In 1907 the present requirements of credit equivalent to the freshman and sophomore 
years of the college of letters and science became effective. 

A general idea of the prelegal course is found in Chicago. 

Various studies especially valuable in the preliminary education of a lawyer have 
been designated as "prelegal courses," and are enumerated below. Though not 
required, prospective law students are strongly advised to elect at least a year of 
work (chiefly in the third college year) fi-om this gToup, and to choose their junior 
college electives with this view. Candidates for the degree of LL.B. are also urged 
to take prelegal work before entering the law school. 

A choice among the courses offered in the university upon the following subjects is 
particularly recommended : 

Principles of political economy; constitutional and political history of the United 
States; National, Federal, State, and municipal government; constitutional and 
poHtical history of England; Roman law; oral debates and argumentation; book- 
keeping and accounting; railway transportation and regulation of rates; economic 
and social history; finance, money, and banking; financial and tariff history; organi- 
zation of business enterprise; introduction to study of society; contemporary society 
in the United States; industrial gi-oups and urban communities; charities and social 
treatment of crime; social forces in modern democracy; logic and psychology; 
political and social ethics. 

With the approval of the dean of the law school other courses may also be accepted 
as prelegal work, especially those offered in the departments of political economy and 
political science courses in English, American, and modern European history, and 
courses dealing with modern social and municipal problems. Students who have 
not had the course in civil government in the United States, or who have not com- 
pleted the English composition required in the junior colleges, should take these 
before entering the law school. 

The movement toward a 2-year standard of prelegal education has 
become national, through the promotion of the Association of Ameri- 
can Law Schools, whose object is the improvement of legal education 
m America, especially in law schools. 

Its articles of association, as adopted in 1900 and amended and 
construed in the 10 subsequent annual meetings, outline the general 
progress in the standardizing of law schools, as the following excerpts 
will show: ^ 

Law schools may be elected to membership at any meeting by vote of the association, 
but no law school shall be so elected unless it complies with the following requirements : 

1. It shall requii-e of all candidates for its degree at the time of their admission to 
the school the completion of a 4-years' high-school course, or such a course of prepara- 
tion as would be accepted for admission to the State university or to the principal 
colleges and universities in the State where the law school is located: Provided, That 
this requirement shall not take effect until September, 1907. (As amended in 1905.) 

A later resolution on the subject is as follows: 

Resolved, That the association deems it highly advisable that the requirements for 
admission to the law schools which are members of this association shall be advanced 

'Association of American Law Schools: Articles of association adopted Aug. 28, 1900, as amended and 
construed In the 10 subsequent annual meetings. 



104 PEESENT STANDARDS OE HIGHER EDUCATION. 

as rapidly as the conditions under which the work of the several schools is carried on 
will permit, and strongly commends the action of those schools which have already 
advanced their requirements so as to require one or more years of work at college as a 
prerequisite to admission to the law school, and express the earnest hope that thia 
advancement may continue until all of the members of the association shall ulti- 
mately require at least 2 years of college work as preliminary to the study of law. (See 
Proc, 1908, pp. 4, 5.) 

2. It shall require of its candidates for any legal degi'ee study of law during a period 
of at least 3 years of 30 weeks each, with an average of at least 10 hours required class- 
room work each week; Provided, hoivever, That candidates attending night classes 
only shall be required to study law during a period of not less than 4 years of 30 weeks 
each, with an average of at least 8 hours of required classroom work each week. (As 
amended in 1909.) i 

3. The confeiTing of its degree shall be conditioned upon the attainment of a grade of 
scholarship ascertained by examination. 

4. It shall own, or have convenient access to during all regular library hours, a library 
containing the reports of the State in which the school is located and of the United 
States Supreme Court. 

Any school which shall fail to maintain the requirements provided for in Article 
Sixth, or such standard as may hereafter be adopted by resolution of the association, 
shall be excluded from the association by a vote at the general meeting, but may be 
reinstated at a subsequent meeting on proof that it is then bona fide fulfilling such 
requirements.^ 

CONFEDERATION OF STATE LICENSING BOARDS. 

In law, as in medicine, a confederation of State licensing boards 
was finally formed and attention given to practice acts, and there 
are signs that in time the analogous bodies in law may become a 
standardizing influence.^ 

1 This section originally read as follows: 

2. Tlie course of study leading to its degree shall cover at least 2 years of 30 weeks per year, with an aver- 
age of at least 10 hours' required classroom work each week for each student: Provided, That after the year 
1905 members of tliis association shall require a 3-years' course. 

The following construction was placed upon this section before its amendment: 

Resolved, That any school wliich gives a degree to a student who has studied law for less than 3 years is 
not complying with Article VI of the articles of the association, (.\dopted, Proc, 1907, pp. 39, 47.) 

Resolved, That present members of the association who have in good faith accepted a different interpre- 
tation of the requirements of Article VI shall have 2 years to comply with the interpretation now adopted. 
(Adopted, Proc, 1907, p. 48.) 

Resolved, fl) That the question of gi%ang credit for work done in other law schools must be left to the 
discretion of each member of the association. 

(2) That under no circumstances sliould students be admitted to advanced standing on account of work 
done in law offices, or elsewhere than in a law school, except upon the applicant's passing rigid examinations 
on the subjects for which time credit is to be given. 

(3) That the time credit so given for office work should not exceed 1 year. 

(4) That the practice of giving advanced standing on account of office work, even when so restricted, is 
dangerous to the maintenance of high standards and is to be reprehended, but it is not deemed wise at the 
present time to adopt any regulation prohibiting the allowance of time credit of a year or less for such study 
in law offices and the consequent admission to advanced standing on that account. (See Proc, 1908, 
pp. 4-6.) 

2 For comparative purposes with German, Frencli, and English standards, reference may be made to 
"The education of the German lawyer," by Judge Karl von Lewiuski, of Berlin, in Rep. of Amer. Bar 
Assoc, 1908, p. 814; Notes on early history of legal studies in England, by Justice Joseph Walton, Rep. Amer. 
Bar Assoc, 1899, p. 001 ; " The teaching of the law in France," by Sir Thomas Barclay, ibid., p. 593; article 
on legal education in England, by Harold D. Haseltine, Cambridge University, England, Proc. Amer. 
Bar. Assoc, 1909. See also Sir Frederick Pollock's comments on the article, N. Y. State Dept., Rep. on 
Higher Educ, 1911, pp. 193-194. 

3 Of. Rules for admission to tjie bar in the several States and Territories of the United States, 4th edition, 
1907, West Publishing Co., St. Paul; also a report of a committee on standard rules for admission to the 
bar. Rop. Amer. Bar Assoc, 1908, p. 775. 



STANDARDS OF LAW SCHOOLS. 105 

At this point the experience of the New York State Education 
Department is illuminating. 

The department by maintaining the standards for an approved 
college and rating credentials of law candidates by the standards of 
these colleges in proportion to the work actually done has practically 
raised the standards of these colleges and universities, so that they are 
2 years or 1 year in advance of the requirements exacted by the rule 
of the court of appeals, since they require as a condition of graduation 
at least 6 full years in liberal arts and sciences in addition to a com- 
pleted 8-year elementary course. The department declares this is 
not simpl}^ an academic question and queries — 

whether the remarkable growth in students in attendance on the law schools during 
the last decade does not seem to prove that it is now time for New York State to 
require of all applicants for admission to the bar examinations attendance on, and 
graduation from, the 3-years' course in a law school registered by the regents as meeting 
the standard school year and class work required by the rules of the court of appeals. 
* * * Three years' attendance on and graduation from a law school should be 
required for admission to the bar examination. Discussions by the law associations, 
both national and State, strengthen this belief. * * * in fairness to the profession, 
in the protection of the public and in justice to immature minds contemplating law as a 
profession, should not a prerequisite law or rule be adopted requiring not only a general 
preliminary education for admission to the bar examinations, but a professional 
training in a standard law school as well ? And accompanying such prerequisite profes- 
sional requirement should not the duty be imposed upon the law schools to admit 
only qualified students? Such laws have proved their efficiency in other profes- 
sions, and certainly the profession of law is worthy of every safeguard that can be thrown 
about it.^ 

The following are specimens of regulations concerning combined 
academic and law course at Yale University: 

Students in the academic department of Yale University may so combine their 
work in that department with the work of the law school as to obtain the degree in 
arts and in law in 6 years. Students in the academical department may elect 8 hours 
of classroom work in the law school and obtain a credit for the same on the 60 hours 
required for the degree in arts and on the 45 hours required for the degree in law. 
Students who obtain this credit while in the academical department are enabled to 
complete the law school course in 2 additional years. 

The course in mining law is open to students in the Sheffield Scientific School who 
are studying engineering and who present to the dean of the law school the written 
consent of the director of the scientific school to their registration for the course. ^ 

The establishment of combined courses within universities has led 
in the interest of detached colleges to the establishment of prelegal 
courses by which advanced credit is given. Yale provides that: 

Graduates of approved colleges who have taken while in college strictly legal 
studies and have passed a creditable examination in such studies at such college may, 
so far as such studies form part of the regular first-year curricidum, substitute for 
them certain courses of the second-year curriculum; and in such case, during their 
second year may take some of the courses offered in the thud-year curriculum. 

1 Rep. on Higher Educ. in State of N. Y., for school year ending July 31, 1910, pp. 194-196. 

2 General catalogue Yale University, 1911-12, 574. 



106 PEESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 

The combined course at Michigan is stated as follows : 

Students desiring to obtain the degrees of bachelor of arts in the department of lit- 
erature, science, and the arts, and of bachelor of laws, in the department of law, may 
by enrolling on the combined literary and law course, shorten from 7 years to 6 the time 
required to earn the two degrees. This privilege is open only to students who during 
their first 3 years have maintained a uniform record of good scholarship. The work 
is under the direction of a joint committee of five members, representing the depart- 
ment of literature, science, and the arts, and the department of law. With the con- 
sent of a committee in charge a candidate for the degree of bachelor of arts, who haa 
been a student in the department of literature, science, and the arts for at least 1 year 
and has 90 or more hours to his credit, of which at least 30 hours have been earned in 
the department of literature, science, and the arts of this university may enroll on 
the combined course; that is, while continuing his registration in this department he 
may also register in the department of law, provided the work he has already com- 
pleted includes a sufficient number of the courses to enable him to complete within 1 
year the specific requirement described in the following paragraph.' 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION. 

The length of time generally given to the law curriculum, as has 
been shown, has risen from 1 to 2 to 3 years. The length of the year 
has been established practically as 36 weeks. The number of hours 
per week has been generally 10, with a maximum of 14. A number 
of the leading schools now offer a fourth year for graduate work or a 
degree with distinction, or an advanced degree. The curriculum has 
been graded. The courses have been prescribed, for the most part, 
through the 3 years; but with the entrance of electives, quite gen- 
erally in the third year and in some cases in the second, when an 
institution announces that the courses are elective, it will be found 
that they safeguard by requiring the candidates for degrees to take 
a minimum amount of the standard subjects. Sometimes an insti- 
tution offers an election among the prescribed curricula leading to 
advanced degrees, thus practically giving us a group system. An 
illustration of accomplishing the elective system by the route of 
departments is afforded by the Catholic University of America, 
wliich has 5 departments, as follows: (I) General university law lec- 
tures; (II) the undergraduate department of common law; (III) 
the graduate department of common law; (IV) the department of 
civil law; (V) the department of jurisprudence. 

The combined courses with the college of Uberal arts, or what 
amounts to the same in the permission to take under certain con- 
ditions courses in other colleges, promises very properly a develop- 
ment of an interrelating of law schools with departments or schools 
of political and social science, of commerce, and of business admin- 
istration. Such schools will become more than schools preparing 
practitioners and will aid to reestablish, in the broad sense, jurispru- 

1 Univ. of Mich. Calendar, 1911-12, 234-235. 



STAN-DAKDS OF LAW SCHOOLS. 107 

dence in its place of influence in general education and to retain the 
rank of the law faculty, as in the German universities, with the 
philosophical, theological, and medical faculties. 

THE METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 

The methods of instruction have been as much revolutionized as 
in the much-heralded revolution of scientific instruction in hberal 
arts colleges. The original method was the lecture system, suc- 
ceeded by the textbook system, succeeded by the case system, per- 
haps more properly named "source" method. 

LAW COURSES FOR BACHELOR'S DEGREE. 

Harvard. — Candidates for degree: All of first-year course amounting to 13 hours 
per week for the year. In 2d year 16 hour-s are offered, of which 12 must be taken; 
18 hours offered in 3d year, of which 10 must be taken. No student may take more 
than 6 full courses (of 3 hours each) without special permission, and a course taken 
to remove conditions will be counted as part of the 6. 

Advanced degree: A fourth-year com-se of 8 -J hours is offered for advanced stu- 
dents, who may take any subject in 2d and 3d years not already taken, but candi- 
dates for the doctorate must take Roman law and the principles of the civil law. 
Graduates of other schools qualified to be members of the Association of American 
Law Schools may take this degree upon one year's residence after receiving the 
bachelor's degree. 

Yale. — Candidates for degree: All required subjects of first two years, or 7 hours 
of required and 8 hours elective in 3d year (1st year equals about 15 hours, 2d equals 
about 18 hoiu"s); same amount of work required for bachelor of law and bachelor of 
civil law degree; but applicants for latter degree must take Roman law and may 
elect certain courses in political science. 

Advanced degree: Those may be admitted as candidates for doctor of law (Jur. 
Dr.) who have arts degree from recognized institution and have graduated from 
recognized law school. If such persons also have the bachelor of laws degree, they may 
be admitted as candidates for D. C. L., but must pass examination on Roman law, 
Latin, and either French or German. 

Columbia. — Candidates for degree: Required work consists of "74 points" and 
covers 3 years. Each point represents satisfactory completion of work, representing 
one hour per week for a half year. No student may take more than 14 nor less than 
12 points per semester without special permission. All work of 1st year prescribed; 
all of 2d and 3d elective; 2d-year work may be taken in 3d year, but not as a rule 
vice versa. 

Advanced degree: Master of laws degree requires 52 hours in public and private 
law; 18 hours must be in' public law, general jurisprudence, and Roman law. Hold- 
ers of the LL. B. of Columbia "or of a legal degree accepted as equivalent thereto" 
can usually qualify with one additional year. 

Cornell. — Candidates for degree: Two courses offered — one of 9 months for 4 years 
and one of 9 months for 3 years. The 4-year course "is designed principally for those 
students who have only the preparation afforded by the high schools or preparatory 
schools." Torts is the only law subject taught in the course the first year; the 
remainder of the year is taken up with courses in the college of arts and sciences. 
The 3-year course is primarily designed for college graduates and for those who have 
completed at least a year of college work. 

Chicago. — Candidates for degree: Three-year coui'se; work of 1st year requii-ed; 
2d and 3d years elective and may be taken in any order, except that certain courses 
are better taken in the 3d year. Practice courses required. 



108 PRESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Catholic. — Candidates for degree: Bachelor's degree is given after a course of 3 
years. The Ist-year course consists of 13^ hours; the 2d and 3d years of 13 hours 
each. 

Advanced degree: The master's degree in law is given after a course of 4 years. 
The degrees of J. C. D. (Juris Communis Doctor and Juris Civilis Doctor) are con- 
ferred on students who pursue the "courses required" under direction of the fac- 
ulty, pass the examinations, and present and print a dissertation. Students who do 
not complete the course for the doctorate may, after 3 years' study, apply for the 
licentiate, degree. The J. U. D. (Juris Utriusque Doctor) is granted to those who 
fidfill conditions for both J. C. D. degrees. The LL. D. is given for 2 years of 
"research work within the domain of comparative jurisprudence"; open only to 
holders of the J. U. D. degree of this or of some other university with courses "sub- 
stantially identical." Dissertation must be presented and published. 



The ordinary degree is that of bachelor of laws, calling for the ful- 
fillment of the admission requirement, according to the institution, 
a minimum of high-school preparation, a maximum of college gradua- 
tion. A 3 years' course must be completed, ordmarily in residence at 
the school, though certain schools permit time in an office to count 
for 1 year. Term and fuial examinations at the end of the 3 years 
must be passed. There is a marked tendency to reserve the degree 
of LL.B. for a lower standard, for example, for those who have not 
a liberal arts bachelor's degree, or have not had the highest quality of 
work. The University of Chicago, after consultation with other 
graduate law schools, has offered the degree of Juris Doctor {J. D.) 
which is reserved for those who are college graduates and have com- 
pleted the professional course. The curriculum of the undergraduate 
department of common law leads to the degree of bachelor of laws 
(LL.B.), the curriculum of the graduate department of common law 
to the degrees of master of laws (LLM.) and Doctor of Law or Juris 
Doctor (J. D.) 

ADMISSION FOR LAW DEGREES. 

Harvard {1911-12). — Graduates of colleges of high grade; graduates of other colleges 
when producing certificate that they ranked in the first third of the class in senior 
year.^ 

Yale. — Graduates from an approved college or scientific school; those who can pre- 
sent certificate from an " approved college or scientific school ' ' that they have done 
the equivalent of two full years' work of 15 hoiirs each; prescribed examinations. 

Catholic. — Must be members of the bar, or have received bachelor's degree in arts, 
letters, science, philosophy, theology, medicine, or law, or "must have enjoyed a 
literary or professional experience" which is "fairly equivalent;" must have reading 
knowledge of Latin, French, and German, and be "already well grounded in the 
principles of fundamental philosophy" or so ground themselves. 

1 Admission is granted to those not candidates for a degree wiio are graduates of colleges but are not 
admissible as regular students; graduates of law schools having 3-year course. Persons 21 years old who 
have no degrees may be admitted as special students by vote of the faculty and after passing examination 
In law, Latin, and French. 



CHAPTER V. 
STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF ENGINEERING. 

What is now known as the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, at 
Troy, N. Y., founded in 1824, was the first organized technical school in 
the United States, though previous to its organization some technical 
work had been carried incidentally by professors of science in liberal 
arts colleges. Indeed, the latter practice prevailed until as late as 
1905 in the State University of Iov,^a and is still found in some col- 
leges, e. g., Cornell College. In IMichigan, though work was begun 
in 1858 and first degrees were conferred in 1868, the engineering 
course was included in the curriculum of the collegiate department 
until 1894-95. A sketch of the enlargement of the work at the 
Rensselaer Polytechnic indicates well the general advance in the 
standards of technical work. The founder, Stephen Van Rensselaer, 
stated its purpose to be "the application of science to the common 
purposes of life." At the beginning, the institution was modestly 
called the Rensselaer School. The board of trustees announced 
that the school was prepared to give instruction in — 

chemistry, experimental philosophy, and natural history with their application to 
agriculture, domestic economy, and the arts; and also for teaching land surveying. 
There were two professors, Amos Eaton, professor of chemistry and natural philosophy 
and lecturer on geology, land surveying, etc., and Lewis C. Beck, professor of botany, 
mineralogy and zoology. There were 25 students. The degree of bachelor of arts 
was given after one year and master of arts at the end of a second year of study. Much 
attention was given to field and laboratory work; in fact a circular issued in 1826 
stated that the school was "limited to an experimental course in natural science," 
and it was confined principally to botany, geology, and mineralogy. 

After 9 years, in 1833, the name was changed to " Rensselaer Institute. " With this 
higher sounding name came an effort toward higher education, and in 1835 there was 
established " a department of mathematical arts, for the purpose of giving instruction 
in engineering and technology." At that time the degree of civil engineer (C. E.) 
was established and was given to 8 graduates in the department of mathematical arts, 
11 years after the founding of the school. The course of study still covered only 40 
weeks of 1 year, and there were only 3 professors and 1 assistant. A circular issued in 
1835 said: " One year is sufficient for obtaining the Rensselaer degree of civil engineer, 
for a candidate who is well prepared to enter. Graduates of colleges may succeed by 
close application during the 24 weeks in the summer term. " 

Of the 40 weeks required by this course, the mornings of 4 weeks were devoted to 
"extemporaneous speaking on the subjects of logic, rhetoric, geology, geography, and 
history," and the afternoons to composition, exercises in various mathematical arts, 
and national and municipal law. ; 

After another period of 11 years, another epoch and a long step forward was made, 
when B. Franklin Greene became senior professor in 1846. After a careful study of 

109 



110 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

the scientific and technical institutions in Europe, Prof. Greene thoroughly reorganized 
this institution upon the basis of a general polytechnic institute, and it was then called 
the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. The managers resolved that " their field should 
be narrowed and more thoroughly cultivated, " and their efforts " restricted to matters 
immediately cognate to architecture and engineering." The somewhat irregular 
and optional course requiring but a single year, was then superseded by a systematic 
and thorough curriculum requiring at least 3 years * * *. The new curriculum 
showed the effect of the study of the French schools. Its course considerably resem- 
liled the 3 years' course of L'Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, while the part 
forming the ground work of the higher technical studies resembled the curriculum 
of L'Ecole Polytechnique. By the year 1854 the courses in civil engineering and 
natural science had been well developed. In 1857 the course in topographical 
engineering was added, but it was abandoned in 1866, only 5 men having taken the 
degree of T. E. In 1858 the 4-year course was established in civil engineering. In 
1862 the course in mechanical engineering was added to those in civil and topographical 
engineering and natural science and all four courses were extended to 4 years, the 
first 2 years being the same in all. The course in mechanical engineering did not, 
however, materialize, and students who wished to pursue their studies in mechanical 
engineering were obliged to go abroad, there being no established schools in this 
country at that time teaching that branch of engineering. In 1871 there remained 
only the course in civil engineering to represent the general polytechnic school which 
was the dream of Prof. B. Franklin Greene. While the institute in 1871 ceased to be 
a polytechnk: institute except in name, it was still an excellent school of civil engi- 
neering, and has grown in excellence and importance as a school of civil engineering 
from that day to this.' 

The rapid development of the sciences brought about at the middle 
of the nineteenth century after much discussion the establishment of 
scientific schools or courses in connection with classical mstitutions. 
The pathfinder was the school now known as the Sheffield Scientific 
School, commenced at Yale with a famous opening address made by 
Dr. Horace Bushnell in 1847. Harvard opened the Lawrence 
Scientific School in 1847. It was at first announced as an advanced 
school of science and literature for graduates and others sufficiently 
qualified. Most of its early students were already college graduates 
or persons who came for professional study of a special subject. It 
soon received students with only secondary school education and had 
courses leading to the degree of bachelor of science and the various 
branches of natural and applied science. 

The culmination of the second stage is perhaps marked by the 
foundation of a second great detached school — the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology. In the memorial prepared in 1859 and 
presented to the legislature in 1860 is given the ideal: 

Reference is made to the expected early establishment of a comprehensive poly- 
technic college, furnishing a complete system of industrial education supplementary 
to the general training of other institutions and fitted to equip its students with every 
scientific and technical principle applicable to the industrial pursuits of the age. 

On April 10, 1861, an act was passed by the General Court of Massachusetts to 
incorporate The Massachusetts Institute of Technology "for the purpose of instituting 

> Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, (June, 1909), The formal opening of the Russell 
Sage Laboratory, pp. 22 ff. 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF ENGHSTEEEING. Ill 

and maintaining a society of arts, a museum of arts, and a school of industrial science, 
and aiding generally by suitable means the advancement, development, and practical 
application of science in connection with arts, agriculture, manufactures, and com- 
merce." 

The scope of this school was and ever has been very broad. Its 
great president, Gen. Francis A. Walker, inspired the school with a 
continuation of and combination of its original ideals of cultural and 
technical education. 

The rising interest in industrial education, particularly in the West 
in agricultural education, resulted in attempts to found industrial 
and agricultural colleges in the universities. The Morrill Act of 1862, 
securing Federal land grants for colleges of agriculture and mechanic 
arts in each State and Territory, marks the third stage in the advance 
of technical education for the '' industrial classes." 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION. 

The requirements for admission to these colleges at first could not 
be maintained on the plane of the requirements for admission to the 
college of liberal arts, though gradually raised in stronger colleges to 
the same standard as the liberal arts college. In the Lawrence 
Scientific School, as in the case of the Rensselaer Polytechnic, at the 
beginning no strict requirements were enforced beyond the ability of 
the student to carry. The Harvard catalogue of 1846-47 reads: 

All graduates of the university or any other colleges and all not graduates of 18 
years, qualified to pursue the study, are admitted to the school. 

There was provision to give a diploma. In the catalogue of 1848-49 
the candidates for admission must have received a good common 
English education and be qualified to pursue to advantage courses 
to which they purpose to give attention. The certificate given on 
leaving school was to state the number of terms spent and the studies 
pursued. That it was not necessary to have high requisites for 
admission perhaps may be inferred from the character of the work, 
as reported in the catalogue of 1847-48: 

A few students have already entered their names. They pass the time from 9 
o'clock a. m. to 1 o'clock p. m. in the laboratory, engaged personally in manipulations 
and experiments of which notes are taken at the time, to be revised later, and sub- 
mitted the following morning to the professor, who directs also the course of reading. 
In the summer term a full coiu-se of demonstrative lectiu-es will be given by Prof. 
Horsford. 

As the brief historical sketch given indicates, the requirements for 
admission rose slowly from a common-school education to the present 
full standards of 15 units for admission to college. Indeed, the stand- 
ards as administered have been stiffer than in the colleges of liberal 
arts, the requirements m mathematics calling for more algebra, solid 



112 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

geometry, and trigonometry. The languages were reduced to a mini- 
mum, and Greek disappeared. 

The typical entrance requirements to-day are as follows : 

ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 

Rensselaer (1910). — Must offer subjects covering 14 units when "unit" means the 
equivalent of 5 prepared recitations a week for a school year. WTien each recitation 
is not less than 40 minutes 10 units must be in required subjects; 4 from a given list 
of electives. 

Columbia. — Total requirements, 14J units; required, 11^; elective, 3. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — Must be 17 years old and have passed satis- 
factory examinations in algebra, plane and solid geometry, phj'sics, elementary 
French and German, English and history, and must show satisfactory evidence of 
preparation in two of a number of electives. 

Cornell. — 15 units from the list of entrance subjects are required for entrance to the 
4-year course, 4 being elective ; for the 5th and 6th year courses 15 units are required 
with 5 electives. 

Michigan. — 15 units required (unit is defined to be 5 recitations per week for one 
year in one branch of study). 11| required; 3^ units elective from a designated list. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION AND DEGREES. 

The courses of instruction have risen from 1 year to 4, and m connec- 
tion with combined courses and graduate schools even to 6 years. The 
standard undergraduate course is still 4 years, though a course of 3 
years is still reputable, as at Sheffield Scientific. The curriculum is 
absolutely prescribed, at least for the first year, and ordinarily for 
the first 2 years, when the courses differentiate from the old civil 
engineermg course to meet the many modern applications of science. 

Tlie general character of the curricula in the various schools 
appears from the statements which follow : 

Yale (Sheffield Scientific). — The work of the freshman year is introductory to all 
courses. At the opening of the year the class is divided into two groups: 

(1) The Engineering Science Group which is preparatory to the courses in civil 
engineering, mechanical engineering, municipal and sanitary engineering, electrical 
engineering, mining engineering, mathematics, pure and applied, chemistry pre- 
paratory to metallurgy. 

(2) The Natural Science Group which is preparatory to the courses in chemistry, 
zoology and botany, Ijiology preparatory to medical studies, studies preparatory to 
the study of forestry, selected studies in language, literature, history, and the natural 
and social sciences. 

P'or students electing any of the courses under group 1 there is offered during the 
freshman year a course including German or French; plane and solid analytical 
geometry; physics, recitations and experimental lectures; chemistry, recitations, 
lectures and laboratory; English; Englisli composition; drawing; descriptive geometry. ' 

For students electing any in group 2 the freshman year provides German or French; 
analytics and calculus; physics, recitations; physics, experimental lectures; elementary 
chemistry, recitations; elementary chemistry, lectures and laboratory; English; 
English composition; biology, lectures and laboratory; drawing. 

After the freshman year the subjects are varied to meet the needs of the principal 
object of the course, but many subjects appear again and again as parts of the different 
courses. The courses named above cover 3, 4, and 5 years. 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF ENGINEERIN^G. 113 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — This institution has a series of courses similar 
to those offered in the Sheffield Scientific School. They cover 4 years, but there is a 
general scientific course covering 3 years. 

The first term of the first year is common to all courses and offers: Mathematics; 
plane trigonometry; inorganic chemistry with lectures, recitations and laboratory; 
mechanical drawing and descriptive geometry; freehand drawing; German; rhetoric 
and English composition; military science; physical training. 

For the second term of the first year the work is divided into 5 different parts or 
sections to meet the particular needs of the diverging courses. 

There are also offered other courses as follows: IV. Architecture, 4 years. VIII. 
Physics. XII. Geology and geodesy, 4 years. XIII. Naval architecture and marine 
engineering, 4 years. XIIIA. Naval architecture. XIV. Electro-chemistry. 

The institute has been selected by the United States Navy Department to give 
professional instruction to officers designated for the Corps of Naval Constructors. 
Course XIIIA is in response to this commission. The first and second years of this 
course for naval constructors correspond respectively to the third and fourth years of 
Course XIII; the third year corresponds to graduate work in other departments and 
leads to the degree of master of science. 

University of Illinois. — The typical development of courses in an institution that 
received its impetus from the Morrill Act may be seen in the University of Illinois. 
These courses may ordinarily be completed in 4 years representing 130 semester hours, 
where 1 semester hour is 1 class period (presupposing 2 hours work for preparation) 
per week for 1 semester. All courses lead to B. S. 

In general the work of the freshman year is the same or nearly the same for all 
courses. I. Architecture. II. Architectural engineering. III. Architectural deco- 
ration. IV. Civil engineering. V. Electrical engineering. VI. Mechanical engi- 
neering. VII. Mining engineering. VIII. Municipal and sanitary engineering. 
IX. Railway civil engineering (this course differs from IV only in 3d and 4th 
years). X. Railway electrical engineering (differs from IX only in 4th year), XI., 
Railway mechanical engineering (differs from VI only after 1st semester of 3d year). 

In 1906 Harvard was enabled, by the generous bequest of Gordon 
McKay for work in applied science, to transfer a part of the work of 
the Lawrence Scientific School to Harvard College, and a part to the 
newly established graduate school of applied science, thus discon- 
tinuing the scientific schools as an undergraduate division. 

The graduate school of applied science provides instruction and offers professional 
degrees in engineering (civil, mechanical, electrical), mining, metallurgy, architecture, 
landscape architecture, forestry, applied physics, applied chemistry, applied zoology, 
and applied geology. 

Membership in the school of applied science is open to men who are graduates of a 
college or scientific school in good standing. Other men of suitable age and attain- 
ments may also be admitted by the administrative board of the school by special vote 
in each case, but such admission does not carry with it admission to candidacy for a 
degree. 

Other institutions, notably Rensselear Polytechnic and the Uni- 
versities of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Cornell, have offered advanced 
standing to graduates of higher institutions of learning. There is at 
present a marked tendency to differentiate university schools of 
engineering from collegiate schools, in accordance with the definition 
of the Association of American Universities — that is, a school requires 
62400°— Ic 



114 PEESENT STAND AEDS OF HIGHEE EDUCATION. 

2 years of collegiate preparation in addition to that of the high school, 
and the college only requires a high-school preparation. In certain 
States where there are 2 tax-supported institutions, this policy is 
likely to ripen fast. The Iowa State Board of Education, in its report 
to the legislature of 1911, declared for the maintenance of a college of 
engineering at the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, at 
Ames, and for an advanced school of engineering at the State Uni- 
versity of Iowa, Iowa City.^ 

The elective system has made it possible to announce a combined 
course in liberal arts and applied science. By suitable choice of 
electives, students complete both the liberal arts and engineering 
courses in 6 years, receiving various liberal arts degrees, in Iowa even 
the degree of B. A. with the degree of B. E. 

The use of the degree of master in engineering courses is spreading — 
e. g., the degree of master of civil engineering granted by Harvard 
University. The earlier and wider usage is that of Yale, which for 
a course of 5 years gives the degree of civil engineer, etc. A pro- 
vision is also made at Yale, which is not uncommon, in connection 
with the graduate school, to give for advanced work the degree of 
master of science, and even doctor of philosophy. 

SUMMARY. 

The experience of the recent years has dissipated earlier beliefs 
that the classical and technical institutions should be separate, and 
the notion that there was some inherent antagonism between the 
literary college and the technical school. Engineering, in some sense 
one of the younger professions now taking its place beside the so-called 
ancient and honorable professions, is also conscious of the need of a 
broad or cultural preliminary education. The assembling of literary 
and technical colleges and schools, with the present interrelation 
of studies, helps each institution to reenforce the other. The much 
heralded American ingenuity and invention have increased the need 
for thorough professional schools of applied science. The progress of 
science itself has created new points of application of science. The 
advance of standards, therefore, in technical schools has, almost 
unnoticed, kept pace with educational advances elsewhere. 

1 In 1912, the board is attempting the consolidation of the college and school at Ames. 



CHAPTER VI. 
STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF DENTISTRY. 

There are three epochs and three types in the history of dental 
colleges. The first institution to which has been given the credit of 
recognizing dentistry as a distinct profession was the Baltimore College 
of Dental Surgery, founded in 1839. It is believed that the founders, 
Drs. Hayden and Harris, physicians, sought to have one of the 
medical colleges in Baltimore create chairs for systematic instruction 
of dental students in connection with the medical course. The 
medical faculties did not welcome the plan; hence the founding of the 
separate college of dentistry. In the 73 years since, these colleges 
have increased to about 55 now in operation in the United States 
alone. 

The first type is the detached and proprietary college. The second 
type has been that in which dental education has heen carried by a 
college of medicine, although the medical degree has not been given 
for the dental specialization. Colleges of this type have been rare, 
although the idea of appending dental to medical education has never 
been wholly dormant. Under this idea medical men upon occasion 
have sought to reunite the separate colleges of medicine and den- 
tistry, making dentistry a branch of medicine, placing it on a basis 
with any other specialty. Especially in those countries where 
dentistry can only be practiced by qualified medical graduates have 
organizations like the stomatological societies agitated the question. 
The dentists of the United States hold strongly that the separation of 
the medical and dental professions was not the creation of a specialty 
in medicine, but the creation of a distinct profession which requires 
a separate course of instruction especially adapted for its successful 
practice. To them the dentist is the composite of the physician, the 
artist, and the artisan.^ 

In 1865 the Massachusetts Dental Society urged the need of a 
dental school in connection with Harvard. As a result the Harvard 
Dental School was instituted in 1867, and this year marks an epoch 
in the history of dental education. Gradually thereafter, in the 
following succession, universities organized dental colleges: Pennsyl- 
vania, 1872; Michigan, 1875; California, 1881; Iowa, 1882; Minnesota, 

1 Cf. History of Dental Surgery, Chas. R. E. Koch, D. D. S., Nat'l Arts Pub. Co., 1909, Chicago. See also 
Proc. ISth annual meeting of the Institute of Dental Pedagogics, 1908, pp. 20-30; and Dental Cosmos, July 
1909, pp. 888-891. 

115 



116 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

1887. These make the third or university type, in which the college 
is an integral part of the university and on a parity with the other 
schools. 

At the beginning these schools had few standards, and naturally 
the proprietary schools, which were more numerous, were especially 
exposed to the temptations of commercialism. With this, also, in 
some measure, the university schools were tainted, for they were 
expected to be largely self-supporting. In consequence the financial 
interest has been especially powerful in preventing an advance of 
standards, which makes the instruction expensive and threatens, as 
in medicine, to close the schools that have not an endowment or the 
beneficent support of a university. 

The first dental society of record in this country was formed in 
New York in 1840. It was known as the American Society of Dental 
Surgeons. This society required for admission that a person be 21 
years of age and have a good English education. He must also have 
had 2 years' study and practice with some practical dentist known 
as such to the society. This society was dissolved in 1856. After 
that time several societies were organized, but had no permanent 
existence. In 1859 the American Dental Association, patterned 
after the American Medical Association, was formed. 

One of the earliest and for a long time most successful influences 
for raising standards was the National Association of Dental Faculties. 
This association was organized in 1883, its object being to promote 
the interests of dental education. Its constitution, as adopted in 
1906, admits to membership — 

any regularly incorporated dental college or dental department in any medical 
college or university which has been in existence at least 1 scholastic year, and having 
the written ajjproval and indorsement of its State board of dental examiners. 

It guards itself on the professional side by the followuig section: ^ 

Sec. 10. No member shall be permitted to retain membership in this association 
if its dental school is conducted or managed in whole or in part by any person or 
persons who do not practice their profession in accordance with the well recognized 
and generally accepted forms, usually known as dental ethics, or if it is owned in 
whole or in part by men or women who are engaged in disreputable professional prac- 
tices, or if any member shall have any one upon its list of trustees, any member of its 
faculty, any demonstrator, or any one in any other capacity, who does not practice 
professionally, in accordance with the principles above mentioned. 

The association provided for a vigorous administration by having 
an executive committee, an ad interim committee, a law committee, 
a foreign relations committee, a school committee, and a committee 
on textbooks. These committees were to investigate all matters 
relating to the fraudulent issuance of diplomas, to ferret out irregular 
colleges and the granting of degrees irregularly by unrecognized 
colleges, to look to the enforcement of laws enacted by the United 

I Sec. 10, Proc. Nat. Assoc. Den. Fac, 25th an. meeting, 1908, p. 96. 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF DENTISTRY. 117 

States and the various States in any manner relating to the dental 
profession or dental schools, as to matters concerning the status of 
foreign and American dental educational measures, to verify entrance 
credentials of foreigners applying for matriculation in any American 
dental college, to decide as to the equivalents of foreign dental 
educational instruction with American, to investigate the schools 
which are members of the association, to report upon any proposed new 
dental college or proposed reorganization of an old one, to prepare a 
list of dental schools, and to examine the books designed for reference 
or for the use of dental students. In short, this was a highly organized 
association, administermg not only with reference to educational 
standards, but applying them to schools and individual students. 
It became very effective and contributed much to the raising of 
standards. But when the standards reached a certain height and 
financial interests were involved, or when the sovereignty of a State 
was touched, or the immemorial freedom of a university, there came 
danger of disruption, and in due time "the expulsion or secession, 
particularly of the university schools. 

Another standardizing agency is the National Association of Dental 
Examiners, established in 1882. The State boards of dental examin- 
ers, instituted under the police power of the State to protect the 
people, incidentally have done much to suppress the commercial 
spirit in dentistry and to raise the standards. One of its presidents 
expressed this very strongly in his address in 1905.^ Speaking of 
the efforts of the association toward the educational advancement of 
the profession of dentistry, he said : 

That it has been successful to a high degree is beyond question if you will but recall 
to what a low point the requisitions for becoming a dentist had sunk when this associa- 
tion was organized. At that time the dental colleges had grown to a considerable 
number and were engaged in a very profitable business, with hundreds of men with or 
without, mostly without, rudimentary education flocking to their doors. Preliminary 
requirements were unknown; matriculates were received and welcomed with their 
money, among them those who could neither speak nor write the English language; 
degrees were granted to all alike if they but had the money; 2 terms of 4 months each 
was all that was required to secure the degree, and in many cases 1 term of 4 months and 
a statement of previous study, easily made, sufficed. All this has been changed — 
changed by the established rules and legal power of the individual boards having 
memberships in this association. It has checked the colleges somewhat in their mad 
rush for money and students and held them up in a degree to its prescribed educational 
standards. It has advanced the requirements for graduation from 2 years of 4 months 
to 3 years of 9 months, and at St. Louis last year demanded as the minimum preliminary 
requirement for entrance to a dental college a diploma from a 4-year high school or 
its equivalent. 

• The American Dental Association, formed in 1860 and merged 
with the Southern Dental Association in the National Dental Associa- 
tion, 1897, has fostered by general papers and discussion ideals of 

1 Nat. Assoc. Den. Exam., 1905, p. 4. 



118 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

standards, with a tendency toward national uniformity. After the 
example of the American Medical Association, they have started a 
dental educational council, organized in 1910. If the purposes 
mentioned in their articles of organization are attained, the colleges 
of dentistr}^ will be firmly established on a liigh level of efficiency. 

The latest standardizing agency, proceeding from the third type 
of colleges, those of the university type, is the Dental Faculties 
Association of American Universities, organized in 1909, at Phila- 
delphia, as the result of a preliminary meeting in Boston in 1908. 
Not content with contemplating the importance of standards, they 
look to the ultimate establishment of a national standard, according 
to article 2 of their constitution: 

The object of the association shall be: To promote dental education; to improve 
the standard of preliminary education required for admission to dental schools; to 
establish reciprocal educational relations with its members, and ultimately to establish 
a national standard which may serve as the basis for a reciprocal interchange of dental 
licenses among the several States. 

The membership of this association shall be limited to dental schools which are an 
integral part of State universities or of chartered universities of equal standing of the 
United States of America, holding membership in the Association of American Uni- 
versities or accepted by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 
demanding graduation from accredited high schools that require not less than 4 years 
of high-school work, or the equivalent amount of education for matriculation. 

The secretary-treasurer shall keep a record of all matriculants in all colleges members 
of this association, giving name, age, address, and preliminary qualifications of each 
matriculant, list to be furnished by the dean of each college, together with the 
announcement for that year, within 60 days after the opening of the college — said 
list may be published as a reference in the annual proceedings. * * * 

The educational conunittee shall review all announcements of members of this 
association; 

Shall outline a preparatory course of study for matriculation, suggesting what 
subjects should be required and what subjects elective; 

Shall advise as to the number of conditions allowable for matriculation; 

Shall advise as to uniformity of curriculum, length of the sessions, and system of 
examinations, markings, and grades of scholarship; 

Shall advise as to the conditions of promotion and admission to advanced standing; 

Shall advise as to the standing of foreign preparatory and public schools and colleges, 
and foreign dental colleges; 

Shall determine the comparative value of the curriculum of other dental colleges 
not members of this association. 

The association, after considering the advisabihty of adopting a 
4-year curriculum in place of the present 3-year curriculum in the 
coUege of dentistry, concluded at this time to recommend the exten- 
sion of the graduate phase of instruction in lieu of adopting a 4-year 
obligatory curriculum. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION. 

In view of the above history, we may summarize the requirements 
for admission as follows: At the beginning, preliminary requirements 



I 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF DENTISTRY. 119 

were unknown; even the intrants sometimes could neither speak nor 
write English. At Harvard an examination for admission was first 
required in 1885-86. The requkements have been steadily advanced 
until now the State of New York ^ and the university colleges require 
a 4-year high-school course. 

Regents of the University of the State of New York, adopted April 26, 1906. — Requke 
"an approved secondary course for admission to dental schools"; certain subjects 
"are deemed essentail to a sound education and should be prescribed"; same for all 
students preparing to enter professional schools and for all students entering dental 
schools. The secondary course approved requii-es 25 periods per week for 38 units 
for 4 years. 

State University of Iowa, March, 1911. — Has adopted the standard of the regents of 
the University of the State of New York and has added 1 year in chemistry, to be 
effective in 1912-13. 

University of Pennsylvania. — 60 counts, or "the equivalent of these counts in high- 
school subjects attested by certificates or diplomas issued by approved high schools 
or literary colleges " ; applicants may be admitted on 45 counts, the other 15 to be 
made up. The count values "are based upon work throughout a standard academic 
year" of 38 weeks. In lieu of diploma or certificate a matriculate examination is 
required. 

COMBINED COURSES. 

The University of Michigan offers a combined literary and dental 
course. It provides that — 

Students desiring to obtain the degrees of bachelor of arts in the department of 
literature, science, and the arts, and of doctor of dental surgery in the college of 
dental siu:gery, may, by enrolling on the combined literary and dental course, shorten 
from 7 years to 6 the time requii'ed to earn the two degrees. 

At the State University of Iowa the courses are so combined that 
the degrees of M. D. and D. D. S. may be taken in 6 years. To make 
this combination of courses, the student must meet the admission 
requirements of the medical colleges. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 

The methods of instruction have advanced from the lecture system 
to the use of demonstrations, practical exercises, laboratory, and 
clinics. The work is supplemented by note taking, quizzes, and 
written examinations. Courses of instruction are prescribed practi- 
cally without exception. 

The following are specimen curricula: 

HARVARD. 

First year. — Anatomy, dissection, physiology, histology and embryology; physio- 
logical, pathological, and dental chemistry, and metallurgy. 

Second year. — Oral pathology, operative dentistry, oral surgery, prosthetic dentis- 
try, orthodontia, porcelain work, general and dental materia medica and therapeutics, 
bacteriology, crown and bridge work, and practical work daily in the prosthetic labora- 
tory and in the operative infirmary. 

iHigtuer Education, Dentistry, Handbook, 10, p. 11. 



120 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Third year. — Operative dentistry, oral surgery, prosthetic dentistry, orthodontia, 
porcelain work, neurology, surgical pathology and surgery, crown and bridge work, 
dental jurisprudence, and practical work in operative infirmary and prosthetic labora- 
tory. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

First year. — Chemistry, anatomy, histology, osteology, materia medica, operative 
and mechanical technics, operative and mechanical dentistry, and physical education. 

Second year. — Materia medica, physiology, operative and mechanical dentistry 
and metallurgy, dental pathology and therapeutics, bacteriology, applied anatomy 
and oral surgery; work in practical anatomy (dissecting) is finished during this year; 
operative and mechanical work, with the privilege of the operating room and appli- 
ances during the morning and afternoon clinics; the final examinations of the second 
year will be upon materia medica, physiology, bacteriology, applied anatomy, and 
progi'ess in operative and mechanical dentistry. 

Third year. — Operative dentistry, mechanical dentistry, and dental metallurgy, 
and the lectures on these subjects, together with dental pathology and therapeutics, 
oral surgery and orthodontia; examinations at mid -term of the third year will be 
held upon one-half of the subject of oral surgery and upon the following minor sub- 
jects: Dental metallurgy, ceramics, crown-and-bridge work, orthodontia, and anes- 
thesia. At the close of the term, examinations will be held upon operative dentistry, 
prosthetic dentistry, dental pathology and therapeutics, and oral surgery. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION AND FOR DEGREES. 

At the beginning, 2 terms of 4 months each, and in some cases 1 
term of 4 months, and a statement of previous study, easily made, 
sufficed. The course was lengthened from 2 years of 4 months each 
to 3 years of 6 months each, and is now 3 years of 9 months. The 
extension to 3 years took place at Harvard in 1890. The program of 
instruction has been graded. In the earlier regulations, even the 
Dental Faculties Association discouraged the migration of students 
and did not permit the giving of advanced standing. Now there is 
provision that graduation from a medical school in general should 
give at least 1 year of advanced standing. 

The requirements of the State of New York are as follows: 
The regents shall admit to examination any candidate who shall pay the fee herein 
prescribed and submit satisfactory evidence, verified by oath if required, that he — 

1. Is more than 21 years of age. 

2. Is of good moral character. 

3. Has a preliminary education equivalent to graduation from a 4-year high-school 
course registered by the regents, or an education accepted by the regents as fully 
equivalent. 

4. Subsequently to receiving such preliminary education either has been graduated 
in course with a dental degree from a registered dental school, or else, having been 
graduated in course from a registered medical school with a degree of doctor of medi- 
cine, has pursued thereafter a course of special study of dentistry for at least 2 years in 
a registered dental school, and received therefrom its degree of doctor of dental surgery, 
or else holds a diploma or license conferring full right to practice dentistry in some 
foreign country and granted by some registered authority. 

The standard degrees are: Doctor of Dental Surgery (D. D. S.), 
given at Michigan, Pennsylvania, Iowa, and Illinois; Doctor of Dental 
Medicine (D. D. M.), given at Harvard; and Doctor of Dental Science 
(D. D. Sc), given at Michigan for advanced or graduate work. 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF DENTISTRY. 121 

The requirements of the regents of the University of the State of 
New York are here given, followed by those of Harvard : 

The degree of doctor of dental surgery is the only one conferred by the schools of this 
State and may not be conferred on anyone till he has satisfactorily completed in a 
registered dental school (1) a course of at least 3 years, or (2) a special course of at least 
2 years after graduation in course from a registered medical school. The degree can 
not be conferred on anyone unless, prior to matriculation in the institution conferring 
the degree or before beginning the second annual course counted toward the degree, 
he has filed with the institution a dental student certificate as evidence of the required 
preliminary education. 

Harvard. — The degree of doctor of dental medicine (Dentariae Medicinse Doctoris) 
may be conferred upon any candidate of adult age, and of good moral character, who has 
passed all the required examinations. He must also give evidence of having studied 
medicine or dentistry in some recognized school 3 full years, the last continuous year 
of which must have been spent at this school. * * * Graduates from other repu- 
table dental schools whose course of instruction consists of 3 years of 9 months each 
may obtain the degree of doctor of dental medicine by spending 1 year in the school 
and passing the required examinations. 

Michigan. — Offers the degree of doctor of dental science (D. D, Sc.) 
to graduate students only who complete the course or "a course 
embracing an equivalent amount of scientific work." The purpose 
of the course is — 

to meet the requests of students for further opportunity to pursue the scientific branches 
and also to meet an often expressed wish on the part of practitioners to pursue some 
special scientific investigation which has been entered upon at home with limited 
resources. * * * The graduate course is open only to graduates of this college who 
have made marked records in their undergraduate work, and to graduates of this and 
other colleges who have had at least 2 years of continuous practice since graduation, 
and who have published original articles of scientific value which show a capacity 
on their part for continuing such work with credit. 

The course of study is independent of and additional to tTi< regular undergraduate 
work, and embraces only such topics as will aid in training men to carry on scientific 
researches in subjects associated with practical dentistry, or with dentistry in its 
scientific aspect. 

SUMMARY. 

The ultimate requirement of the same standard of admission to the 
colleges of dentistry as to the colleges of medicine — not less than 2 
years of collegiate preliminary education in advance of the secon- 
dary — may come somewhat slowly. The marvelous progress of this 
new and rising profession since 1839, and the equal demonstration 
that it is a profession differentiated from the medical profession, while 
it^^ in some sense it forms a section in medical education, are promising. 
B' The organization of the University Dental Faculties Association is a 
K part of the centralizing of professional education within the univer- 
K sities. It parallels the similar movement in law, medicine, engineer- 
H ing, architecture, and pedagogy. It means the elevation in fact of 
P~ dentistry as a discipline in higher education and the elimination of 
the commercial school. 



CHAPTER VII. 
STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF PHARMACY. 

Practically there was no education in pharmacy in this country until 
1821, except for the apprentice system, where the lad was indentured 
in the old-fashioned shop of an apothecary for 6 years. ^ To Dr. 
John Morgan is given the credit of originating pharmacy in the United 
States. Returning from Europe to Philadelphia in 1765, he was the 
first to institute the European practice of writing prescriptions and 
having them compounded by competent apothecaries. The practice 
spread slowly. It was more than 50 years later, in 1816, before any 
attempt was made to teach pharmacy by means of a regular course of 
lectures. Five years later, in February, 1821, the board of trustees of 
the University of Pennsylvania, acting on a recommendation from the 
professors of the medical faculty, adopted a resolution institutmg 
the degree of master of pharmacy, and provisions were made for 
instituting a course of lectures on chemistry, materia medica, and 
pharmacy in the university. In addition to serving 3 years' ap- 
prenticeship with an apothecary or a master of pharmacy, attend- 
ance upon 2 courses of lectures in the new school was required. In 
April, 1821, 16 apothecaries received the degree of master of phar- 
macy.2 The druggists and apothecaries of Philadelphia who had 
objections to academic and distinctive titles, with the old-time 
guild spirit in reaction against the school of the University of Penn- 
sylvania, organized in 1821 a college of their own "for the twofold 
purpose of providing a system of instruction of pharmacy and 
subjectmg themselves to regulations in their busmess." They 
refused to have degrees of any kind. Thus early the antagonism 
between the business and the profession of pharmacy appeared. 
The new college, however, in 1826 was compelled to pass a resolu- 
tion that those who had completed the attendance on 2 courses of 
lectures, had passed a satisfactory examination in the branches 
taught, and were able to furnish satisfactory evidence that they 
had been engaged in the business of an apothecary, were to be 
adjudged "graduates in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy." 
Thus in 1826 arose the degree of graduate in pharmacy, the first 
title being exactly "Graduate in the Philadelphia College of Phar- 
macy." 

1 Proc. Third AnnualMectrng of Conf. of Pharm. Faculties, 1902, p. 7. 

2 Amer. Jour. Pharm., vol. 77, 1905, pp. 215 fl. 
122 



STANDAEDS OF SCHOOLS OF PHARMACY. 123 

The absence of laws to regulate the practice of pharmacy or the 
sale of drugs, medicmes, or poisons, the impossibility of fixing 
responsibility for deaths due to mistakes or of fixing the amount of 
adulteration of drugs, brought about the formation of associations, 
beginning ui 1820, of the more intelligent apothecaries in several 
of the eastern cities. The 4 colleges — the Philadelphia College of 
Pharmacy (1821), the New York College of Pharmacy (1829), the 
Maryland College of Pharmacy (Baltimore, 1856), the Massachusetts 
College of Pharmacy (Boston, 1867)— corresponded with each other 
and were the pioneers in pharmaceutical education. In the West, Chi- 
cago College (1859), St. Louis (1866), Louisville (1870), andCmcmnati 
(1871) aided the educational movement. In 1850 the New York 
college called a convention for the purpose of getting a uniform 
enforcement of the United States drug inspection law, and appointed 
a committee to bring in plans for forming a national association, 
to meet annually, to promote a general advance in pharmaceu- 
tical education, to create a demand for a higher grade and quality 
of drugs, to suppress adulteration and empiricism, and in general to 
elevate the character and standing of American pharmacy. The 
convention voted to organize the American Pharmaceutical Asso- 
ciation, which has become a national standardizing agency. 

From the nature of the case a powerful influence in affecting 
pharmacy is the Pharmacopoeia, standardizing prescriptions and 
qualities of drugs. In 1820 the first pharmacopoeia was published 
by a convention of delegates from the medical society in the United 
States, with a similar representation from pharmaceutical organi- 
zations. It was essentially a convention of medical men, greatly 
influenced from Philadelphia, which was then the medical center. 
The United States Pharmacopoeia, published by them, became the 
basis for Wood and Bache's Dispensatory, the authority for apothe- 
caries throughout the country. The dispensatory was a private 
publication which, along with the pecuniary interests of the drug 
trade, thus early combined with the business interests of the guild 
of apothecaries, and tended to prevent progress in pharmacy and 
to spread a taint of commercialism. The Massachusetts College, 
without an educational school except for courses of lectures in the 
winter attended by apothecaries and their assistants, endeavored 
to elevate the standard of pharmacy in Boston. The college did 
not believe in a theoretical university education without a practical 
experience in a regular pharmacy and laboratory, and required a 
full 4 years' course of instruction with a reputable dispensary in 
addition to the full course of instruction in a regular college of 
pharmacy in order to obtain the degree of Ph. G. This college is 
typical of the guild colleges. 

In 1860 the decennial pharmacopoeia convention, through the 
influence of the pharmacists, made a revolution by abolishing the 



124 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATIOlSr. 

measures of capacity of the old pharmacopoeia, and expressmg their 
formula by weight and parts, and making a uniform standard for 
all things in compounding. They also effected the organization of 
a large committee of final revision from different sections in the 
country. The Wood and Bache Dispensatory ignored the vote of 
the convention, with the result that in 1870 the colleges and the 
American Pharmaceutical Association accomplished a radical revo- 
lution.^ 

The colleges established by the pharmaceutical society and en- 
couraged by the American Pharmaceutical Association in the East, 
naturally under English traditions, were not annexed to colleges 
like Harvard and Yale, or until a late date, and then by affiliation, 
as at Columbia. We have seen how the University of Pennsylvania 
was discouraged and has not now a college of pharmacy. 

The second distinct stage of collegiate education is marked, there- 
fore, by the rise of the State university and the request of the State 
societies for instruction in these institutions belonging peculiarly to 
the people.^ The German influence, perhaps, was felt in these 
institutions, the European governments, excepting in England, 
requiring for the practice of pharmacy from 5 to 10 years of special 
study as a preliminary education equivalent to that for entrance to 
universities. 

The pharmaceutical education in a high collegiate sense, while 
presented very early as an ideal in a meeting of the American Phar- 
maceutical Association and also strongly opposed there, may be 
dated from the formation of the American Conference of Pharma- 
ceutical Faculties in 1899. This organization, aided by the action 
of the State boards of pharmacy and inspired by the legislation of 
the State of New York and more recently by other States, like 
Pennsylvania, is raismg standards and securmg a degree of uniformity. 
The example set by the American Medical Association, council, and 
colleges, is also impelling a forward movement. 

REGISTRATION OF PHARMACY SCHOOLS. 

The regents of the University of the State of New York require 
a registration of pharmacy schools, under essentially the following 
minimum qualifications: 

(1) The value of apparatus and equipment shall be at least $5,000. (2) Not less 
than 3 professors shall be employed regularly in giving instruction. (3) Practical work 
shall be required in not less than 3 laboratory courses, including chemistry, pharmacy, 
and materia medica. (4) 17 years shall be the minimum age for admission to the 
pharmacy school and not less than 15 counts (academic) or the educational equivalent 
shall be the scholastic requirement. (5) Satisfactory evidence of good moral char- 

1 Proe. Amer. Pharm. Assoc, vol. 41, 1893, p. 223 £f. 

2 Proc. 4tli an. meeting of Amer. Conf. Pharm. Fac, p. 4. 



STANDAEDS OF SCHOOLS OF PHAKMACY. 125 

acter shall be requii'ed for graduation. (6) The minimum course of instruction for 
any one year shall be not less than 25 weeks of 15 hom-s a week and at least 2 months 
must intervene between the close of the first year and the opening of the second year 
of the coiu-se. A minimum of 1,000 recitation and laboratory hours shall be required. 
An hour is the measure of the work prepared for a weekly recitation, lecture, or quiz 
in a higher institution. (7) Only such schools shall be registered as maintain day 
sessions (the minimum requirements met prior to 6 p. m.). (8) The details for regis- 
tration shall be completed when referred to the committee for approval. (9) Foreign 
schools applying for registration shall meet the same requirements as the schools of 
the United States. (10) Pharmacy schools shall be accredited as they meet one, or 
more, year's professional requirements for such recognition. (11) No time allowance 
shall be accorded the diplomas of doctors of medicine, dental surgery, or veterinary 
medicine in lieu of professional requirements for admission to the pharmacy licensing 
examination. (12) Schools without the State may be required to fuj-nish lists of 
matriculates the same as New York schools.^ 

ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS. 

Regents of the University of the State of New York. — The minimum requirement ia 
the successful completion of one year of a registered secondary-school course, "or its 
equivalent, 15 regents' academic counts;" examination in English for foreigners. 
For admission to the pharmacy licensing examination the applicant must present 
"the diploma of a pharmacy school, college, or department of a university incor- 
porated and registered by the regents as maintaining a proper pharmacy standard." 

Columbia. — 11^ units. 

Illinois. — Those admitted to the course leading to degree of pharmaceutical chemist 
must be 17 years old and "graduates of accredited high schools or furnish evidence of 
a preliminary education equivalent thereto." Those seeking degree of graduate in 
pharmacy must be 17 or have completed "one year of high-school work or its full 
educational equivalent." 

Michigan. — To 2-year course, leading to degree of pharmaceutical chemist: 16 years 
of age; "graduation in any of the full courses of the schools approved;" students who 
have completed at least 1 year's work in an approved college; graduates of reputable 
colleges of medicine or pharmacy. Others must present "satisfactory credentials" or 
take an examination in 15 units (a unit equals 5 recitations per week through the 
school year). The requirements for admission to the 4-year course leading to the 
degree of bachelor of science in pharmacy are the same as those for admission to the 
department of literature, science, and arts. 

State Universitij of Iowa. — Requires 2 years of high-school work, or 8 units. 

Kansas. — For the 2 or 3 year course: Graduation from the 8th grade and in addition 
high-school work in physics, Latin, and botany. For the 4-year course a 4-year high- 
school preparation. 

Nebraska. — For the 2 and 3 year course: 2 years of 16 points of high-school prei:)ara- 
tion, with conditions. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION. 

Pharmaceutical education has to contend with a variety of condi- 
tions. There is the demand for a practitioner's course, for an ordmary 
drug clerk with the mixed busmess that has gathered in the drug store. 
Secondly, there still survives the importance of trained men to make 

iNew York Education Department. Handbook 11, Higher Education, Pharmacy, June, -1910, pp. 
47-50. 



126 PEESENT STANDAEDS OF HIGHEE EDUCATION. 

up prescriptions. Tliirdly, the advance of science yielding many 
new preparations which must be intelligently handled. Fourth, the 
pure-food laws calling for specialists. The courses for graduation 
show an attempt to meet these varied demands. The university 
colleges, with laboratory equipment and often with hospitals and 
dispensaries, giving an opportunity for practice, eliminate the require- 
ment of drug-store experience, so important in the earlier days of 
pharmacy colleges rising out of the apprentice stage. The detached 
I)roprietary colleges, survivors of the guild institutions and generally 
without hospitals or dispensaries to serve them, emphasize still the 
store experience. The result is that there are various groups or 
courses of study leading to various degrees. 

GRADUATION AND DEGREES. 

Columbia. — Offers a college course of 2 years leading to the degree of graduate in 
pharmacy, conferred by the college and qualifying for position as licensed pharmacist; 
a university course of 2 years, more advanced in character than the former, pursued 
through the academic year and leading to degree of pharmaceutical chemist, conferred 
by the university; a third or graduate course of 1 year leading to doctor of pharmacy 
fits graduates for positions as analysts and microscopists. A fourth year may be added 
to the 3 above which makes the entire course of 4 years equal to that leading to the 
bachelor of science degree. Other courses offered — 1 year in the microscopical and 
chemical analysis of foods and drugs; summer preparatory course of 12 weeks; various 
special courses for which certificates, but not diplomas, are granted. 

Nebraska. — Two-year course of 28 and 34 semester hours, respectively, leading to 
graduate in pharmacy (Ph. G.); a 3-year course leading to pharmaceutical chemist 
(Ph. C), the first 2 years as above, the third representing 36 semester hours of elective 
work in advanced courses; a 4-year course leads to degree of bachelor of science in 
l)harmacy (B. S. in Pharmacy). It demands 32, 31, 35, and 33 semester hours, 
respectively. 

Michigan. — Two-year course required for degree of pharmaceutical chemist. The 
studies of these years "constitute an amount of work which taxes the full working 
power of a student of average quickness and strength of scholarship." The 4-year 
course leads to degree of bachelor of science in pharmacy and requires not less than 
120 hours of credit. Advanced courses covering 1 year are offered to graduates who 
wish to take the degree of master of science in pharmacy. 

COMBINED COURSES. 

In the 2-year courses the studies are practically prescribed. There 
is opportunity for elective work in the 3-year course, but there is the 
beginning of combined courses in the third and fourth year courses. 
The group courses in these colleges in effect round out the equivalent 
of the undergraduate courses in the college of liberal arts. 

A national syllabus committee of the American Conference of 
Pharmaceutical Faculties, representing boards and colleges of phar- 
macy, has made various reports in an endeavor to outline a minimum 
course of study for the guidance of pharmacy schools and State 
boards of pharmacy.^ 

1 Proc. Amer. Conf. Pharm. Faculties, 1907 p. 27 ff. 



I 



STANDAKDS OF SCHOOLS OF PHARMACY. 127 

DEGREES. 

Perhaps there has been more of discussion concerning degrees in 
this new profession of pharmacy than in any other field. As was 
seen above, a prejudice so far prevails that the standard degree is 
still not in line with the university terminology, but with the language 
of the guild — Graduate in Pharmacy (Ph. G.), Pharmaceutical 
Chemist (Ph. C). A committee reported as follows: 

Resolved, That the American Conference of Pharmaceutical Faculties recommend: 
(1) A minimum preliminary educational requirement of high-school work of 4 years 
for the degree of doctor of pharmacy (Phar. D.), 2 years for the degree of pharmaceutical 
chemist (Ph. C), and 1 year for the degree of graduate in pharmacy (Ph. G.). 

(2) That this standard be raised as rapidly as practicable to the preliminary require- 
ment of 4 years of college work, i. e., graduation from college, for the degree of doctor 
of pharmacy, and 4 years of high-school work, i. e., graduation in a high school or 
preparatory school of equal grade for the degree of pharmaceutical chemist, or the 
degree of graduate in pharmacy. 

The minimum preliminary education proposed is that laid down in the requirements 
for membership in the conference, so that any student now admitted to a college repre- 
sented in the conference would be eligible to the degree of Ph. G. under this resolution.^ 

The degree of bachelor in pharmacy (Phar. B.), master of phar- 
macy (Phar. M.), and doctor of pharmacy (Phar. D.), have been 
urged.2 Earlier the analogy with the M. D. degree was pressed for 
the establishment of the degree of doctor of pharmacy.^ There is 
the incongruity that the degree of doctor of pharmacy as offered, for 
example by Columbia, is not equal by one year to that of bachelor of 
pharmacy. Wisconsin offers the following: 

The first degrees given in pharmacy are that of graduate in pharmacy, upon com- 
pletion of the 2-year course, and that of bachelor of science, pharmacy course, con- 
ferred upon candidates who have successfully met the requirements of the 4-year 
course. 

The degree of master of pharmacy is conferred as a second degree upon graduates in 
pharmacy. 

The degrees of master of science and doctor of philosophy are confen-ed as higher 
degrees upon candidates who have a baccalaureate degree. 

Similarly, Kansas gives the degree of bachelor of science so that 
the student graduates on a plane with the student of the regular 
college. This opens the door to the degrees of master of arts and 
doctor of philosophy for those who wish higher educational or 
technical work. 

SUMMARY. 

It is clear that pharmacy, the youngest of the professional schools 
taken up in the academic world excepting journalism, is making 
rapid progress. The universities are being led in the applications of 

1 Proc. Amer. Conf. Pharm. Faculties, 1907, pp. 36 fl. 

2 Proc. 6th An. meeting Amer. Pharm. Faculties, pp. 15 fl. 
3lbid.,p. 215, forl905. 



128 PRESENT STANDAEDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

science in this field to foster a form of secondary education and to 
render a great service to the public welfare that does not need to be 
carried on at many centers. There is an economy and efficiency in 
annexing this work to the university and supplementing chemical 
and medical subjects. In the meantime pharmacy is being devel- 
oped as a modern profession, not only meeting the earlier demands 
of the medical profession but ofi"ering an opportunity for investigation 
and its application to problems in science affecting the welfare of the 
State. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLS OF FINE ARTS AND MUSIC. 

In 1791 Charles Willson Peale tried to found an Art School in Phila- 
delphia. He was not successful, but his attempt led, in 1805, to the 
organization of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, the oldest 
art institution in this country. The National Academy of Design, 
organized in 1826, traces its origin back to 1802, when the New York 
Academy of Fine Arts was founded. The organization that reaches 
the -largest number of people is the American Federation of Arts, 
whose first annual convention was held in Washington, D. C, in May, 
1910. This federation consists of 103 chapters (societies), represent- 
ing in the aggregate about 50,000 persons and over 1,000 individual 
associate members. All the arts are represented — architecture, paint- 
ing, sculpture, music, literature, the theater, and the handicrafts.^ 

Municipal art organizations and commissions, art museums, the 
various societies in the different branches of art, like the National 
Sculptors' Society, the American Institute of Architects, the Ameri- 
can Society of Landscape Architects, to say nothing of musical 
societies, made possible the organization of the American Federation 
of Arts mentioned above. It would seem that last of all, and largely 
by a repetition of the history of the other professional schools, art 
education is to come to its own. The schools established are largely 
private and local. The voluntary societies now springing up are 
federating themselves, and wUl in due time become a unifying and 
standardizing force. The colleges and universities have recognized 
art comparatively recently. The final report of the committee on 
the condition of art work in colleges and universities in the annual 
report of 1910 of the Western Drawing and Manual Training Associa- 
tion gives the latest general view. The general art courses of the 
universities composing the Association of American Universities are 
shown in the following table: 

Art courses of universities. 



Colleges. 


College courses. 


Professional courses. 




History. 


Practice... 


Architecture.. 


Painting.. 


Sculpture. 


Catholic University of America 




History. 










Clark University 












History . 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


r-ractice... 
do 


Architecture.. 
.... do 


Painting.. 


Do. 


Cornell University 

Harvard University 

University of Illinois 

Indiana University 

State University of Iowa 2 

Johns Hopkins University 




...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


... do : 






do 












...do 









' American Year-Book, 1910, p. 
62400°— 13 9 



! College of fine arts organized in 1911. 



129 



130 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Art courses of universities — Continued. 



Colleges. 


College courses. 


Professional courses. 




History . 

...do 

...do 

...do 






Painting.. 




Leland Stanford Junior University 

University of Michigan 

University of Missouri 


..do 

...do 

...do 

...do 














History, 
do 


do 












Architecture 








.. do 










University of Virginia 
























Yale University 


History. 


Practice... 


Architecture.. 


Painting.. 


Sculpture. 







These universities present several types of schools. The first is 
represented by the University of California, with strong collegiate 
courses, and even graduate courses in architecture, but with an annex 
of the San Francisco Institute of Art, which has no entrance require- 
ments, with courses in drawing, painting, modeling, decorating, and 
design, leading to a university certificate of proficiency. 

The second type is represented by Co lumbia, with full collegiate stand- 
ards, a college and faculty of fiiie arts, with the degree of A. B. or B. S., 
a special faculty of fuie arts, including schools of architecture, mvsic, 
and design, leading to the degrees of bachelor in architecture, bachelor 
of music, and a proposed degree of bachelor of design. The work of the 
school of architecture in this university is some 30 years old; the next 
oldest school is that in design, dating from 1906. Cornell has a 4-year 
course leading to the degree of bachelor of architecture. Yale was one 
of the earliest leaders among colleges of this type with a school of fine 
arts, aiming to provide thorough technical instruction in the arts of 
design, drawing, painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in illustra- 
tive decoration and copper-plate etching. The professional school of 
art aims to furnish a thorough course of art in the practice of the 
studios. These departments of practice and criticism may be regarded 
as distinct or correlative. At Yale, lectures in fine arts are allowed 
credit in the junior and senior year, and the graduate school carries 
the fine arts into a group of languages, literature, and the arts, lead- 
ing to the degrees of A. M. and Ph. D. The courses are in painting, 
modeling, drawing, architecture, and anatom3^ The regular pre- 
scribed course of study for students covers a period of 3 years. Cer- 
tificates are awarded to those completing the regular course of 3 
years, and the degree of bachelor of fine arts is conferred by the uni- 
versity upon those who have fulfilled the requirement of a prescribed 
course of advanced studies, and have submitted an approved original 
composition in painting, sculpture, or architecture, and a satisfactory 
thesis on some topic relating to the fine arts. 



SCHOOLS OF FINE ARTS AXD MUSIC. 131 

Harvard germinally belongs to this type of institution. The depart- 
ment of fine arts is under the faculty of arts and sciences, and stu- 
dents enter the graduate school of the arts and sciences. It includes 
3 departments, the department of history and principles of fine arts, 
the department of architecture, and the department of landscape archi- 
tecture. 

The instruction provided by these departments is intended to afford a basis for a 
comprehensive kno-n-ledge of the history and principles of the fine arts from ancient 
times to the present day, to provide a certain amount of training in drawing and 
painting, and to offer to students of architectm-e and landscape architectm-e an oppor- 
tunity to prepare themselves for the practice of those professions. 

The more elementary courses offered by these departments are not highly technical 
in character, and may profitably be taken by students who do not look forward to a 
professional career. These courses are open to properly qualified undergraduates in 
Harvard College, and may be counted for the degi-ees of A. B. and S. B. 

All the more advanced courses offered by the department of architecture and the 
department of landscape architectiu-e are distinctly professional in character, and form 
parts of regular programs of study leading to the degrees of master in architecture and 
master in landscape architectm-e. 

Five full and two half courses are offered in the department of the 
history and principles of the fine arts, 8 or 9 full and 2 half courses, 
for undergraduates and graduates in the department of architecture, 
and 5 full and 2 half courses primarily for graduates. These last 
courses may not be counted toward the A. B. and S. B. degrees. 

The third type is represented by a university like Indiana, which 
has a department of fine arts in a college of liberal arts. 

The aim of the work in this department is [to] lead students to an appreciation of 
the fine arts rather than to the practice of them. Instruction is offered in drawing 
and the use of water colors, in figure sketching, perspective, composition, and design. 
This instruction in practice is intended to give beginners, as well as more advanced 
students, such comprehension of the principles of art as will be of assistance in other 
branches of their college work, by developing an appreciation of beauty and increas- 
ing keenness of perception. It is further intended to give students an understanding 
of actual technique. 

The subject matter of the lectures, primarily historical and critical, is illustrated 
by the casts, collections of photographs and engravings, and original works belonging 
to the fine arts collection. 

The courses deal with the history of architecture and painting, and with criticism, 
and give practice in drawing, water-color painting, and design. Full recognition is 
given toward the A. B. and A. M. degrees. ^ 

Another type is perhaps represented by Princeton, where the 
department of art and architecture offers junior, senior, and gradu- 
ate work in the history of ancient, mediaBval, and renaissance art. 
The graduate school also recognizes art and archeology with the 
courses in Greek architecture and painting, in Christian architecture, 
and in renaissance architecture, with several more purely archeo- 
logical courses. 

1 Final report of the committee on the condition of art work in colleges and universities, pp. 5-6. 



132 PKESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Syracuse represents a type with a college of fine arts, with courses 
leading to the degree of bachelor of architecture and bachelor of 
painting, and with low admission requirements. 

Many colleges have art as an incident, as, for example, Williams 
College, with 12 hours in the history of art and civilization. 

Vigorous and highly, developed courses in architecture leading to 
regular degrees are maintained by the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, University of Pennsylvania, University of Illinois, and 
Washington University. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION. 

The ripest development of fine arts is well represented by Yale and 
Columbia. They represent the development practically of a school 
correlating the great departments of art, drawing, painting, sculpture, 
architecture, music, and a relation to the branches of learning, like the 
philosophy, history, and criticism of art. In short, they are combined 
professional schools and cultural departments, making provision for 
some elementary work, particularly for teachers. For instance, 
Columbia represents an intermediate requirement of about two- 
thirds of collegiate preparation: For admission to the school of 
architecture, 9^ units, elective 6; to school of music, 9i units, elective 
6 J; to school of design, 9 J, elective 3 J. 

For admission to the courses leading to the degree bachelor of 
music: Completion of 62 points of credit in Columbia or Barnard 
(substantially 2 years' undergraduate study) or of "their equivalent 
elsewhere." The ability to play on the pianoforte the two-part inven- 
tions of Bach. 

At Yale the technical course, constituting a grammar of art as a 
foundation for all forms of special application, is distributed over 3 
years. Elementary and advanced work in drawing, pamting, sculp- 
ture, architecture, anatomy, perspective, and composition are offered. 
Elective courses are provided in the senior and junior classes of the 
academical department. We may note here possibly germinal com- 
bined courses. 

The department of music aims to instruct those who intend to 
become musicians by profession, either as teachers or as composers, 
and to afford a course of study for such as intend to devote themselves 
to musical criticism and the literature of music. The work is divided 
into theoretical and practical courses of study. The department is 
open to undergraduates and graduates, also to special students. 

The faculty of fine arts at Columbia embraces the work of the 
schools of architecture, music, and design. It became so in 1906, 
work in architecture having been carried on at the university for 30 
years and in music about 15. In the desire to provide for the needs of 



SCHOOLS OP FIFE AETS AND MUSIC. 133 

the university students seeking opportunities in the study of paintmg, 
sculpture, and decoration, the university effected coordination mth 
a school of design, the practical work being offered m connection with 
courses offered by the National Academy of Design.^ 
The courses required for graduation present typical curricula : 

Columbia. — For the degree of bachelor of architecture there is required 4 years' 
work, aggregating 153 points; for certificate in architecture, 129 points; for degi-ee in 
architectural engineering, 153 points. Courses in landscape gardening and graduate 
courses are offered. For degree of bachelor of music 75 points are required, in part 
prescribed, in part elective, together with "a satisfactory original composition for 
orchestra or with orchestral accompaniment and submission of an essay on a musi- 
cal subject." For certificate of proficiency, as above, except only 50 points of credit 
are required. Certificate of proficiency in design, 115 points, of which 47 are in 
prescribed courses, 10 to 25 in elective courses, and the remainder to studio work. 

DEGREES. 

In the colleges of liberal arts a minimum amount of credit toward 
the bachelor's degree is aUowed for art and a stUl lower amount 
ordiriarily for music. Certificates of proficiency are given by the 
larger institutions for the elementary and shorter course. The degrees 
given by these institutions in the professional courses are usually 
those of bachelor; for example, of architecture or music. Where there 
is graduate research, the arts are accepted as a minor subject for the 
degrees of master of arts and doctor of philosophy, the work being 
taken under one of the graduate faculties. 

SUMMARY. 

The incipient condition of fine arts as an organized department 
may be inferred from the fact that even the Bureau of Education in 
its chapter on professional schools (1910, Vol. II, p. 1017), in the 
general summary of statistics of professional schools, does not include 
fine arts or music. 

iCat., 1910-11, pp. 322-328. 



CHAPTER IX. 
STANDARDS OF UNIVERSITIES. 

The university as contradistinguished from the college in the 
United States in ideal is old, in realization is young. The colonial 
Englishman in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636 and the imme- 
diate succeeding years used the term "university" and also "college." 
As these men were gradutes of Oxford and Cambridge, they must 
have known the difference between a college and a group of colleges 
making a university. As, however, in the seventeenth century, in 
tlie English universities the colleges had come to dominate the uni- 
versity, their consciousness of the difference perhaps was not acute. 

The official publications of Harvard, particularly in the first half 
of the nineteenth century, had numerous variations as to the official 
style of the institution. The Ordinance of 1787 uses the term 
"seminaries." Those who opened the earliest State universities, 
like the University of North Carolina in 1795, of Georgia, Ohio, and 
Virginia, and later the University of Michigan in 1837, as well as the 
latest State universities, in their charters or statutes used the name 
"university" and presented an ideal much beyond that of the col- 
lege. The following excerpts show the prevalence of the idea of an 
institution w4th advanced work and a grouping of professional 
schools with liberal arts: 

The object of the University of Minnesota, established by the constitution at or 
near the Falls of St. Anthony, shall be to provide the means of acquiring a thorough 
knowledege of the various branches of literature, science, and the arts, and such 
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, including 
military tactics and other scientific and classical studies. ^ 

The object of the University of Idaho shall be to provide the means of acquiring a 
thorough knowledge of the various branches of learning connected with scientific, 
industrial, and professional pursuits, and to this end it shall consist of the following 
colleges or departments, to wit: First, the college or department of arts; second, the 
college or department of letters; third, the professional or other colleges or depart- 
ments as may from time to time be added thereto or connected there with. ^ 

At the time of the founding of the universities the influence of 
the highly developed colleges, the manning of the universities by 
college graduates, and the poverty of the institutions maugurated 
them as colleges. Aside from the shadowy introduction of the ideals 

1 Section 327, 1894, Laws of Minnesota, relating to the public-school system, including the State normal 
schools and the University of Minnesota (1901). 

2 Section 938, General School Laws of the State of Idaho, 1905. 

134 



STANDARDS OF UNIVEESITIES. 135 

of France for a university in tlie constitution of the State of New 
York in 1784, making all schools a component part of the university, 
and the influence of German and French universities upon Jefferson in 
founding the Universit}^ of Virginia, perhaps the first home-born move- 
ment was at Harvard in the decade between 1820 and 1830. Up to 
this time EngHsh heredity had shaped Harvard and Yale and their 
compeers. The return of American scholars like George Ticknor from 
Europe to Harvard, the outcome of theological and philosophical 
polemics stirring new thought, and the beginning of professional 
schools, brought the awakening of the modern university. Before the 
elective system appeared in the college the university idea was making 
itself felt in the older foundations generally. The vagueness of the 
university notion is illustrated by the use of the term ''university 
student" at Harvard beginning in the decade between 1820 and 1830 
for a partial-course student. The idea seems to have been that such 
a person could be allowed to take what he wished. This was univer- 
sity freedom. The phrase "university student" was used in this 
sense even by Williams CoUege in the forties and continued untO. 
1861, when it was supplanted by the term "partial student." 

The State universities with their professional schools, springing up 
very early, and influenced about the middle of the century by Mich- 
igan, to which Tappan had brought the ideas of the modern German 
universit}^, furthered the development of a genuine university. 
Thus the ground was prepared for Johns Hopkins, under the leader- 
ship of President Gilman, schooled at Yale, in Europe, and in the 
Universit}^ of California, to become in 1876 the definite example of 
an Anaerican university with the estabhshment of graduate work as 
truly university work. 

President EHot, who had begun his struggle in 1869, saw Harvard 
thoroughly possessed of the university ideals by 1886, and President 
Dwight accomplished the change of title from Yale CoUege to Yale 
University in 1887. Cornell had launched the idea of the enlarge- 
ment of the scope of university instruction. The colleges, alarmed 
by the rapid development of the universities, fearing that their 
ideal would be lost and that they would be swallowed up, entered 
their protests.^ 

The central idea of a standard university as a place for investi- 
gation and research issues in the emphasis upon graduate work. 
The history of the organization of the graduate school of arts and 
sciences at Harvard is a good illustration of the evolution of the idea. 

The graduate school of arts and sciences came into existence as a result of action 
taken in January, 1872, by the corporation and overseers of Hai-vard College in the 
establishment of higher degrees in arts, science, and philosophy, to follow upon the 
degrees of bachelor of arts and bachelor of science, and has for its object the develop- 

1 See Introduction, p. 31. 



136 PKESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION". 

ment of instruction suited to the needs of persons qualifying themselves for such 
higher degrees or otherwise engaged in advanced study. Until 1890 it had little 
formal organization, and was known as the graduate department. In 1890 it was 
more solidly established under the name of the graduate school. In 1905, on recom- 
mendation of the faculty of arts and sciences, its name was changed to the graduate 
school of arts and sciences. Many students come to the school for the sake of instruc- 
tion only and do not become candidates for a degree.' 

The Association of American Universities, formed in 1900, was a 
symptom that the genuine universities, emphasizing graduate work 
as the central thing, felt the need of separating themselves from the 
collegiate institutions. The National Association of State Univer- 
sities, organized in 1896, was another evidence of the awakening of 
the university consciousness. These associations, having in part a 
common membership, have advanced a statement which is tempo- 
rarily accepted as the definition of a standard American university. 
It is embodied in the following report of the committee on standards 
of American universities, which was adopted in 1908 by the National 
Association of State Universities: 

Your committee believes that there are certain clearly marked tendencies or forces 
at work in our American society toward a development, at no distant date, of a typical 
institution of learning, which we may not improperly call the standard American 
university. 

This institution will, for an indefinite time, include as an important part of its 
organization what we may call a standard American college, with a 4-year curricu- 
lum, with a tendency to differentiate its parts in such a way that the first 2 years shall 
be looked upon as a continuation of, and a supplement to, the work of secondary in- 
struction, as given in the high school, while the last 2 years shall be shaped more and 
more distinctly in the direction of special, advanced or university instruction, rising 
gradually into the advanced work of the graduate school. 

The standard American university will also include as a distinct department the 
graduate school or philosophical faculty. 

It will also include as organic parts of the institution in its fully developed form 
various professional schools, such as law, medicine, and engineering. 

Present tendencies point, in our opinion then, to a definite differentiation in the work 
of the college at the close of the sophomore year toward university work in the real 
sense. If these views are just, we suggest the following formulation of principles 
underlying the organization of such an institution and we may define the standard 
American university to be an institution: (1) Which requires for admission the com- 
pletion of the curriculum of a standard American high school with a 4-years course, 
or in other terms, the completion of a course which will enable the pupils to offer not 
less than fourteen 5-hour units, or equivalent ; (2) which offers in the college of literature 
and science 2 years of general or liberal work completing or supplementing the work 
of the high school; (3) which offers a further course of 2 years so arranged that the 
student may begin work of university character leading to the bachelor's degree at the 
end and reaching forward to the continuation of this work in the graduate school or the 
professional school; (4) which offers professional courses, based upon the completion 
of 2 years of collegiate work, in law, or medicine or engineering; (5) which offers in the 
graduate school an adequate course leading to the degree of doctor of philosophy. 

1 Harvard University Catalogue, 1911-12, p. 577. 



STANDARDS OF tJNIVEESITIES. 137 

It is recommended that this association recognize any institution, in whole or in part, 
doing work of this grade as, in so far, doing work of university quahty. 

In recommending that university work begin with the junior year of the college and 
that the professional schools be based on the first 2 years of college, the report is in line 
with present tendencies. It is in accord with the growing belief that the work of the 
last 2 years of college should be organized into groups that aim at more definite results, 
and lead to greater efficiency. But this is only the first of many problems. We are 
facing questions of the time beyond the junior year for attaining the Ph. D. degree, of 
adjusting the scheme of counting the last 2 years toward both arts and professional 
degrees, of the place of the A. B. degree, of the age when the period of general educa- 
tion should end, and of a possible reorganization of elementary and secondary educa- 
tion. But these questions are not ready for solution and hardly belong to the work 
of the committee at the present time. 

In accordance with the foregoing defijiition of the standard American university, it 
is recommended that the following standards be set up: 

1. Time requirement for the bachelor's degree. — Not less than 60 year-hours, or 12 
units, of collegiate work shall be required for the bachelor's degree. 

2. Qualifications of teachers. — It is expected that the teacher in the high school shall 
have the bachelor's degree, or show evidence of equivalent attainment, and it is recom- 
mended that he have the master's degree. As a rule, the professors of all ranks in the 
collegiate work shall have the degree of doctor of philosophy, or its equivalent. The 
professors giving instruction in graduate work are expected to show, in addition to the 
possession of a doctor's degree, or its equivalent, their scholastic ability by successful 
research and publication, and above all, they must have demonstrated that they 
have power as teachers to inspire the students with zeal for research. Indeed, it is 
understood that all the teachers should possess the power of imparting knowledge and 
of character building. In addition, the professors in the professional schools should 
give evidence of doing investigative work and those in technical schools, evidence of 
the power of practical research. 

3. Institutional facilities. — (1) There should be adequate general and departmental 
libraries, with (a) sufficient number of duplicate books for purposes of imdergraduate 
instruction, (6) where graduate work is offered, books, monographs, and other materia;l 
for purposes of research. (2) There should be modem laboratories and apparatus, 
with (a) sufficient supervision for imdergraduate teaching, (b) where graduate work is 
offered, research laboratories. 

4. Time units for degrees. — Institutions providing for advanced work shall require 
3 years or nine 5-hour units from the beginning of the junior year for the degree of master 
of arts, or 5 years or fifteen 5-hour units for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and with 
work in residence. 

[The units shall not necessarily be schedule hom-s, but their equivalent, and shall 
include credit for research and thesis work. It is of course understood that from the 
beginning of the junior year, there is the adoption of a group system suggested by the 
honor schools in English universities, or the separate faculties in the German imiver- 
sities, and that the kind of instruction contemplates investigation — in short, science 
with power — as the purpose. It is the intent that the cultural atmosphere shall 
pervade the work of the student who begins specialization, and that something of the 
spirit of discovery and the earnestness it brings shall affect the cultural temper.] 

5. Scope of curriculum. — To be a standard university an institution shall be equipped 
to give instruction leading to the degree of doctor of philosophy in at least 5 depart- 
ments, according to the standard prescribed in this report, and shall have at least 1 
imiversity professional or technical school. The term university professional or tech- 
nical school shall not be applied to any professional or technical school that does not 
require the 2 years' collegiate training for admission. 



138 PRESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Your committee furtheT recommends as follows: 

Provision for recognition of other institutions. — Provision shall be made whereby 
institutions other than State universities may be freely welcomed to adhere to the 
standards set up by this association.' 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO GRADUATE WORK AND FOR 
ADVANCED DEGREES. 

The requirements for advanced degrees indicate the requirements 
for admission to graduate work and the scope of the work. The de- 
gree of master of arts, given in course 3 or 5 years after graduation 
upon the payment of a fee, has practically disappeared. The col- 
leges that had this practice have set up standards requiring residence, 
examinations, and theses. The universities as distinct from colleges 
have set up strict standards for the master's degree, and also for the 
doctor's degree. The conferring of the doctor's degree honoris causa 
is practically almost dishonorable. The followmg requirements for 
these degrees will indicate the present standards in graduate work, 
the numbers under each institution representing the answers to the 
corresponding questions in the list given: 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADVANCED DECREES. 

1. What are the requirements, in the nature of bachelor's degrees 

from other institutions, for admission to advanced work in this 
university ? 

2. How are work and residence in other institutions considered ? 

3. Time required, and minimum time in residence? 

4. Thesis ? Must it be printed and copies presented to the univer- 

sity ? 

5. Number and character of minors ? 

6. Requirements in French and German? 

7. Degrees granted ? 

8. General character and purpose of work required ? 

[The numbers indicate the questions to which answers are given.] 

California. — Master's degree: 1. Must have bachelor's degree from a "reputable 
institution" or "any other degree or certificate which the graduate council may 
accept as equivalent;" may be admitted to undergraduate classes. 2 and 3. Can- 
didates must have at least one year in residence; 18 units required; 10 may be taken 
in absentia. 4. Thesis, "typewritten or printed." 5. One or two minors. 7. M. A., 
M. L., M. S. 

Doctor's degree: 1. Bachelor's degree or "a course of study equivalent." 2 and 
3. Two years, at least one in residence. 4. Thesis. 5. One or two minors. 6. Reading 
knowledge. 7. Ph. D., J. D. 8. Degrees granted more "on attainments" than on 
"length of time of study." 

Columbia. — Master's degree: 1. Bachelor's degree or "an education equivalent." 
2. Work from other institutions may be credited. 3. One year at least, including 
summer courses. 4. Essay; 2 "written or typewritten copies." 5. Two minors. 
7. A. M. 

» Science, Jan. 29, 1909, pp. 171-173; I'roc. of Nat. Assoc. State Univ., 1908, 147-157. 



STAl^DARDS OF UNIVEESITIES. 139 

Doctor's degree: 1. See under master's degree. 2 and 3. Two years. 4. Thesis; 
printed; 30 copies to the university. 5. Two minors, consuming not more than 
half time. 6. Read at sight, and in some courses, Latin. 7. Ph. D. 

Cornell. — Master's degree: 1. Must be a graduate of Cornell or have had "a course 
substantially equivalent." 2 and 3. One year. 4. Thesis; "bound copy" to the 
university. 5. One minor. 7. M. A., M. C. E., M. M. E., M. S. in Agriculture, 
M. S. in Architecture. 

Doctor's degree: 1. Same as for master's degree. 2. May be accepted "by per- 
mission of faculty." 3. Three years, at least one in residence. 4. Thesis; 50 printed 
copies to the university. 5. "Major and minor subjects." 7. Ph.D. 

Harvard. — Master's degree: 1. Graduate of Harvard, or of "an approved college." 
2 and 3. One year in residence, but those without "sufficient preparation" require 
"at least two years." 6. Elementary knowledge. 7. A. M. 8. Course can not be 
made up wholly of professional studies. 

Doctor's degi-ee: 1. Same as for master's degree. 2 and 3. Not less than two years; 
one in residence, but time "wholly secondary." 4. Thesis; "printed or written 
copy." 6. Reading knowledge. 7. Ph. D. 8. "Long study and high attainments 
in a special branch of learning." 

Illinois. — Master's degree: Graduation from this or "institutions of equal stand- 
ing." 3. One year; graduates of Illinois may do the work in three years in absentia. 
4. Thesis. This requirement may be waived. 5. One or two minors; half time 
on major subject. 7. Academic and professional degrees: A. M., M. S., M. Arct., 
Arct. Eng., C. E., E. E., Mech. E., Min. E. 8. Work required must be of "a high 
order" and such as to show that the candidate has done more "than merely acquire 
a certain amount of knowledge by rote." He must show "a broadening of the knowl- 
edge of his subject of study." 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degree. 2. Residence counted. 3. Three years 
or more; first two years or last one must be in residence. 4. Thesis, which must 
show "power of independent research;" printed; 100 copies to university. 5. First 
minor closely related to major; second minor in another field. 6. Reading knowl-. 
edge, also of "any other language needed." 7. Ph. D. 8. Degree given not for 
time spent, but "for scholarly attainments and power of investigation." Candidate 
must show "a thorough mastery of a selected field of study, evidence of the power 
of independent investigation in this field." 

Indiana. — ^Master's degree: 1. Graduate "of this university, or of any other insti- 
tution of equivalent standing." 2 and 3. Three full terms or 45 hours of university 
credits; one term may be done away from the university or all in summer terms. 
4. Thesis, except in Latin. 5. Thirty hours in one department, of which 15 "must 
be distinctively graduate in character." 7. A. M. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degree. 2 and 3. Three years, a "part" of which 
"may be spent in residence at other universities." 4. Thesis; printed; five copies 
to university. 5. Two minors; one not related to major. 6. Reading knowledge. 

7. Ph. D. 8. Thesis "must always give evidence that the candidate is capable of 
forming an independent judgment upon the recent literature of his department." 

Iowa. — Master's degree: 1. Graduate of this or of "an accredited imiversity or 
college." 3. One year. 4. Thesis. 5. One minor, "closely allied." 7. A. M., 
M. S. in medicine. 8. A. M. is usually literary; M. S. is mainly scientific. 

Doctor's degree: 1. Bachelor's degree from Iowa or "from some other of equal 
rank." 2 and 3. Three j^ears; two in residence, including the last. 4. Thesis; 
printed; 100 copies. 5. One or two minors. 6. Reading knowledge. 7. Ph. D. 

8. Thesis shall be "a contribution to the sum of human knowledge." Degree not 
conferred "simply in consequence of the fulfillment of any time requirement." 

Kansas. — ^Master's degree: 1. Graduation from Kansas or other college or univer- 
sity of good standing. 2 and 3. One year, or 30 horn's of work; half the year must be 



140 PRESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 

spent at Kansas; five hours may be done in absentia, and a part may be done at sum- 
mer schools. 4. Thesis. This may be waived. 5. One or two minors. 7. A. M., 
M. S., C. E., Min. E., Mech. E., Chem. E., E. E. 

Doctor's degree: 1. Graduation from Kansas or some other college or university of 
good standing. 2 and 3. Must spend "three full college years in resident gi'aduate 
work at this or some other approved university." 4. Thesis; printed; 100 copies. 
5. One major and two minors, not more than two in same department. 7. Ph. D. 
8. Thesis must be "the result of original research of a high character." 

Leland Stanford. — Master's degree: 1. Graduates and others "who have had an 
equivalent training elsewhere." 3. One year. 4. Thesis, "as evidence of ability 
to do independent work." 7. A. M. 

Doctor's degree: 1. Same as for master's degree. 2. May be accepted. 3. Three 
years; at least the last in residence. 4. Thesis; printed; 100 copies. 5. One or two 
minors; bothof these may be waived. 6. Reading knowledge. 7. Ph.D. 8. Given 
"only on the groimd of advanced scholarship and the ability to do independent work." 

Michigan. — Master's degree: Graduation from this or other college or university 
of approved standing. 2 and 3. One year. Graduates of this university only may 
do part in absentia. 4. Thesis, usually waived. 5. Two minors; 2d minor in another 
department. 7. A. M., M. S. in Forestry (requires 2 years), M. in Landscape Design. 

Doctor's degree: 1. Open to all bachelors; to be enrolled as candidate for the Ph. D. 
must spend 1 year or come from "graduate school of some other university, " or be a 
graduate of Michigan. 2 and 3. Three years; last in the university. 4. Thesis must 
be "an original contribution to scholarship" or to scientific knowledge; printed, 150 
copies. 5. Two minors, both cognate to the major. 6. Reading knowledge. 7. 
Ph. D., Sc. D. 8. Degree not won "merely by faithful and industrious work," but 
candidate must "evince ability to carry on independent research. " 

Minnesota. — Master's degree: 1. Graduation from Minnesota or some other univer- 
sity or college with an equivalent baccalaureate course. 3. One year. 4. Thesis, 
typewritten; may be printed. 5. Two minors; or in special cases one minor only. 
7. M. A. for nontechnical work; M. S. for technical work. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degree. 2 and 3. Must be enrolled at least one 
year before degree is given and may not be enrolled until a year has been spent in 
postgraduate study; 3 years at least; 3d year in residence. 4. Thesis, typweritten. 
5. Two minors. 6. Reading knowledge and in some cases Latin. 7. Ph. D., Sc. D. 

Missouri. — Master's degi-ee: 1. "Graduates of the colleges and universities com- 
prising the Missouri College Union and of other reputable colleges and universities " 
and by special permission "other persons of liberal education" are admitted to the 
graduate school, but this in itself does not imply admission as candidate for advanced 
degrees. 

Doctor's degree: 1. Must have completed undergraduate course "such as is offered 
by colleges of good standing" and have received degree equal to baccalaureate degree 
of the University of Missouri. 2. May be counted. 3. Last year must be spent at 
this university. 4. Thesis, printed, 150 copies. 5. One or two minors; two-thirds 
time to major. 6. Reading knowledge. 7. Ph. D. 8. Requirements "are not com- 
puted in terms of time and courses, " but for "high attainment in some special branch 
of learning. " 

Nebi'aska.T—KsiSteT's degi-ee: 1. Graduation from an undergraduate college of this 
university or from some other college having equivalent course. 3. One year; may 
be fulfilled by 18 hours of work in summer sessions. 4. Thesis, typewritten. 5. 
"Major and minor studies." 7. A. M. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degree. 2. Two years may be counted. 3. Three 
years, the last in residence. 4. Thesis, printed, 100 copies. 6. Reading knowledge. 
7. Ph. D. 



STANDARDS OF UNIVEESITIES. 141 

Pennsylvania. — Master's degree: 1. Admission to the courses leading to the higher 
degrees lies with the group committee. 2 and 3. One year, but the 12 standard courses 
required may be distributed over three years. 7. A. M., M. S. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master''s degree. 2 and 3. Not less than two years, and 
candidate must have completed "in this university or in other universities" not less 
than "24 standard courses or their equivalent." 4. Thesis, printed, 150 copies. 
5. Two minors, each minor representing "not less than four standard courses." 6. 
Reading knowledge, also of any other language adjudged "to be essential to the prose- 
cution of his major work." 7. Ph. D. 8. The degree is "confen-ed solely in recogni- 
tion of marked ability and high attainments in some definite branch of learning. " 

Princeton. — Master's degree: 1. Bachelor of Princeton "or from other institutions 
maintaining a similar standai-d in distinctively liberal studies." Other graduates 
may be admitted to graduate standing and be allowed to make up deficiencies by 
undergraduate work. 2 and 3. One year in residence with "at least 3 graduate 
com-ses. " 7. A. M. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degree. 2. Two yeai's counted. 3. One year in 
residence; a minimum of 2 years and "in all but the rarest cases 3 years will be found 
necessary." 4. Thesis, printed, 100 copies. 5. May "substitute for a main division 
of his subject a like division of a germane subject; or he may be required to take addi- 
tional work outside his subject" and must take 20 lectures "on the general trend of 
philosophical and scientific thought. " 6. Reading knowledge. 7. Ph. D. 

Virginia. — Master's degree: 1. "Baccalaureate degi-ee from a recognized institution 
of collegiate rank," or in case of graduates without degree "certificate of graduation 
in a course of study accepted by the academic faculty as fully equivalent. " May 
also be required to do undergraduate work. 2 and 3. Must complete work in 4 fully 
organized graduate courses of not less than 3 hours per week each. 5. The 4 courses 
must be chosen from at least 3 distinct subjects and 3 of the courses must be cognate. 
7. M. A., M. S. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degi'ee. 2 and 3. Must do the prescribed work 
in three cognate subjects from at least 2 academic schools, with 3 years' work in major, 
2 in 1st minor and 1 in 2d minor and may be required "to attend such lectures or 
courses in any academic school as the professor may deem necessary. " In certain 
cases only two years of residence required ; the last year always in residence ' ' unless 
the academic faculty shall for special reasons direct otherwise. " 4. Thesis, printed, 
100 copies. 5. Two minors. 6. Reading knowledge or 2 years' work. 7. Ph.D. 

Wisconsin. — Master's degree: 1. Conferred on graduates of Wisconsin and upon 
other graduates "whose training has been substantially equivalent, " judgment being 
based on ' ' actual attainments " rather than on the institutions attended ; undergraduate 
work may be done, but not counted. 2 and 3. Part of work may be done in absentia, 
but in no case with less than 1 semester in residence, carrying from 9 to 12 credits. 
For professional degree not less than one year. 4. Thesis, typewritten. 5. At least 
one-half of all the work "must lie in a single department. " 7. M. A., Ph. M., C. E., 
Mech. E., E. E., Chem. E. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degi-ee. 2 and 3. Three years, the fii-st two or the 
last one must be spent at this university. 4. Thesis, printed, 100 copies. 5. Minors, 
representing 2 years' and 1 year's work; one in distinct department from major. 6. 
Reading knowledge. 7. Ph. D. .8. Degree gi-anted not "solely as the result of faithful 
study extending over a prescribed time. Special attainments are required * * * 
particularly the power of independent investigation. " 

Yale. — Master's degi-ee: 1. Conferred on men who are bachelors of arts of Yale or 
of "other colleges whose course of study is equivalent" upon "their giving to the col 
lege faculty evidence of satisfactory progress in liberal studies after receiving their 
first degree. " Such evidence may be furnished by one year of systematic study in 
New Haven. "Graduates of other colleges can obtain the degree only" by 1 year's 



142 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

residence. 2 and 3. (See 1.) Professional degrees require two years' work, and if the 
literary degree is taken in absentia, 3 years are required. 7. M. A., C. E., Mech. E., 
Min. E., M. S. 

Doctor's degree: 1. See master's degree, but the doctor's degi-ee may be conferred 
on women. 2 and 3. "A course of graduate study of at least 3 years." 4. Thesis, 
printed, 50 copies. 6. "A good knowledge of Latin, German, and French." 7. 
Ph.D. 8. Thesis must give "evidence of high attainment and power of investiga- 
tion. " 

SUMMARY. 

The development of graduate courses and advanced degrees in 
professional schools indicates the rapid evolution of a genuine uni- 
versity with the faculties interrelated in research work. One of the 
consequences is the appearance of combined courses, or their equiva- 
lents, and the differentiation of university as distinct from collegiate 
instruction at the beginning of the junior year of the liberal arts 
college. Upon this as a pivotal point turns the agitation in progress 
for the reorganization of education from bottom to top. Compari- 
sons are forced with the European standards of universities, in effect 
beginning at a point corresponding to the close of the sophomore 
year of the American collegiate course. The rigid imposing of a 
separate graduate course upon the top of the established 4 years' 
collegiate curriculum in the case of the higlily developed professions 
makes the age of the graduate from the professional school to be 
26 or 27 years. The term of human life and the necessity for plas- 
ticity in the young professional man by common consent require 
him to be in practice at about 24 ; hence the pressure upon the entire 
educational system for reorganization. The first effect is within the 
university in making an organic rather than a mechanical relation 
between the graduate school and the undergraduate college. The 
second effect is the development of an organic relation between the 
first 2 years of the college and the high school. 

The definition of a school recommended by the Association of 
American Universities and the National Association of State Uni- 
versities as one requiring for admission to its work 2 yeare of col- 
legiate preparation, and of a college as one requiring only 4 years of 
secondary preparation, is therefore not merely nominal. 

The universities, in short, whether State-supported or endowed, 
are the inspirational heads of the school system, and the focal point 
for all the professions, and the correlating centers for all the organized 
intellectual activities of society. 

Organically related to all society, the universities, themselves the 
result of processes of selection and emancipation as far as human 
institutions can be from political, commercial, and sectarian influ- 
ences, are fitted to be influential standardizing agencies. 



APPENDIX A. 

DEFINITION OF REQUIREMENTS BY THE COLLEGE 
ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD. 

ENGLISH. 

The requirement in Englisli is that recommended by the National Conference on Uniform Entrance 
Requirements in English. 

Requirement for 1912. 

No candidate will be accepted in English whose work is notably defective in point 
of spelling, punctuation, idiom, or division into paragraphs. 

(a) Reading and practice. 
Two units. 

A certain number of books will be recommended for reading, 9 of which, selected 
as prescribed below, are to be offered for examination. The form of examination will 
usually be the writing of a paragraph or two on each of several topics, to be chosen by 
the candidate from a considerable number — perhaps 10 or 15 — set before him in the 
examination paper. The treatment of these topics is designed to test the candidate's 
power of clear and accurate expression, and will call for only a general knowledge of 
the substance of the books. In every case knowledge of the book will be regarded as 
less important than the ability to write good English. In preparation for this part of 
the requirement, it is important that the candidate shall have been instructed in the 
fundamental principles of rhetoric. 

Group I itioo to he selected). Shakespeare's As You Like It, Henry V, Julius 
Caesar, The Merchant of Venice, Twelfth Night. 

Group II {one to be selected). Bacon's Essays; Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, 
Part I; The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers in the Spectator; Franklin's Autobiography. 

Group III (one to be selected). Chaucer's Prologue; Spenser's Faerie Queene (Book 
I); Pope's The Rape of the Lock; Goldsmith's The Deserted Village; Palgrave's 
Golden Treasury (First Series) Books II and III, with especial attention to Dryden, 
Collins, Gray, Cowper, and Burns. 

Group IV {two to be selected). Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield; Scott's Ivanhoe; 
Scott's Quentin Durward; Hawthorne's The House of the Seven Gables; Thack- 
eray's Henry Esmond; Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford; Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities; 
George Eliot's Silas Marner; Blackmore's Lorna Doone. 

Group V {one to be selected). Irving's Sketch Book; Lamb's Essays of Elia; De 
Quincey's Joan of Arc and The English Mail Coach; Carlyle's The Hero as Poet, The 
Hero as Man of Letters, and The Hero as King; Emerson's Essays (Selected); Ruskin's 
Sesame and Lilies. 

Group VI (two to be selected). Coleridge's The Ancient Mariner; Scott's The Lady 
of the Lake; Byron's Mazeppa and The Prisoner of Chillon ; Palgrave's Golden Treasury 
(First Series), Book IV, with especial attention to Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley; 
Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome; Poe's Poems; Lowell's The Vision of Sir Launfal; 
Arnold's Sohrab and Rustum; Longfellow's The Courtship of Miles Standish; Tenny- 
son's The Princess; Browning's Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, How They Brought 
the Good News from Ghent to Aix, Evelyn Hope, Home Thoughts from Abroad, 
Home Thoughts from the Sea, Incident of the French Camp, The Boy and the Angel, 
Que Word More, Herve Riel, Pheidippides. 

143 



144 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

{b) Study and practice. 



This part of the examination presupposes the thorough study of each of the works 
named below. The examination will be upon subject matter, form, and structure. 
In addition the candidate may be required to answer questions involving the essen- 
tials of English grammar, and questions on the leading facts in those periods of English 
literary history to which the prescribed works belong. 

A composition will also be set on a subject drawn from the candidate's studies other 
than English, or from his personal knowledge and experiences quite apart from 
reading. 

The books set for this part of the examination will be : 

Shakespeare's Macbeth; Milton's Comus, L' Allegro, and II Penseroso, or Tenny- 
son's Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, and The Passing of Arthur; Burke's 
Speech on Conciliation with America, or Washington's Farewell Address and Web- 
ster's First Bunker Hill Oration; Macaulay's Life of Johnson, or Carlyle's Essay on 
Burns. 

Requirement for 1913, 1914, and 1915. 

Preparation in English has two main objects: (1) Command of correct and clear 
English, spoken and written; (2) ability to read with accuracy, intelligence, and 
appreciation. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 

The first object requires instruction in grammar and composition. English gram- 
mar should ordinarily be reviewed in the secondary school; and correct spelling and 
grammatical accuracy should be rigorously exacted in connection with all written 
work during the four years. The principles of English composition governing punc- 
tuation, the use of words, paragraphs, and the different kinds of whole composition, 
including letter writing, should be thoroughly mastered; and practice in composition, 
oral as well as written, should extend throughout the secondary school period. Written 
exercises may well comprise narration, description, and easy exposition and argu- 
ment based upon simple outlines. It is advisable that subjects for this work be taken 
from the student's personal experience, general knowledge, and studies other than 
English, as well as from his reading in literature. Finally, special instruction in 
language and composition should be accompanied by concerted effort of teachers in 
all branches to cultivate in the student the habit of using good English in his recita- 
tions and various exercises, whether oral or written. 

LITERATURE. 

The second object is sought by means of two lists of books, headed, respectively, 
Reading and Study, from which may be framed a progressive course in literature 
covering four years. In connection with both lists, the student should be trained in 
reading aloud and be encouraged to commit to memory some of the more notable 
passages both in verse and in prose. As an aid to literary appreciation, he is further 
advised to acquaint himself with the most important facts in the lives of the authors 
whose works he reads and with their place in literary history. 

(a) Reading. 
Two units. 

The aim of this course is to foster in the student the habit of intelligent reading and 
to develop a taste for good literature, by giving him a first-hand knowledge of some 
of its best specimens. He should read the books carefully, but his attention should 
not be so fixed upon details that he fails to appreciate the main purpose and charm of 
what he reads. 



EEQUIREMENTS BY ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD. 145 

With a view to large freedom of choice, the books provided for reading are arranged 
in the following groups, from which at least 10 units ^ axe to be selected, 2 from each 
group: 

I. The Old Testament, comprising at least the chief narrative episodes in Genesis, 
Exodus, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, and Daniel, together with the books of 
Ruth and Esther; the Odyssey, with the omission, if desired, of Books i, ii, m, iv, v, 
XV, XVI, XATi; the Iliad, with the omission, if desired, of Books xi, xni, xiv, xv, 
xvn, xxi; Virgil's Aeneid. The Odyssey, Iliad, and Aeneid should be read in 
English translations of recognized literaiy excellence. 

For any unit of this group a unit from any other gi-oup may be substituted. 

II. Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice; Midsummer Night's Dream; As You 
Like it; Twelfth Night; Hemy the Fifth; Julius Csesar. 

III. Defoe's Robinson Cruso, Part I; Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield; either 
Scott's Ivanhoe or Scott's Quentin Durward; Hawthorne's The House of the Seven 
Gables; either Dickens's David Copperfield or Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities; Thack- 
eray's Henry Esmond; Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford; George Eliot's Silas Marner; Steven- 
son's Treasui-e Island. 

IV. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Part I; The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers in the 
Spectator; Franklin's Autobiography (condensed); Irving's Sketch Book; Macaulay's 
Essays on Lord Ciive and Warren Hastings; Thackeray's English Humom-ists; Selec- 
tions fromLincoLn, including at least the two Inauginals, the Speeches in Independence 
Hall and at Gettysburg, the Last Public Address, and Letter to Horace Greeley, along 
with a brief memoir or estimate; Parkman's Oregon Trail; either Thoreau's Walden 
or Huxley's Autobiography and selections from Lay Sermons, including the addresses 
on Improving Natural Knowledge, A Liberal Education, and A Piece of Chalk; 
Stevenson's Inland Voyage and Travels with a Donkey. 

V. Palgrave's Golden Treasury (First Series), Books II and III, with especial atten- 
tion to Dryden, Collins, Gray, Cowper, and Burns; Gray's Elegy in a Country Church- 
yard and Goldsmith's The Deserted Village; Coleridge's The Ancient Mariner and 
Lowell's The Vision of Sir Launfal; Scott's The Lady of the Lake; Byron's Childe 
Harold, Canto IV, and The Prisoner of ChUlon; Palgrave's Golden Treasury (First 
Series), Book IV, with especial attention to Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley; Poe's 
The Raven, Longfellow's The Courtship of Miles Standish, and ^^Tiittier's Snow 
Bound; Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome and Arnold's Sohi-ab and Rustum; Tenny- 
son's Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, and The Passing of Arthm*; Brown- 
ing's Cavalier Tunes, The Lost I^eader, How They Brought the Good News from Ghent 
to Aix, Home Thoughts fi-om Abroad, Home Thoughts fi'om the Sea, Incident of the 
Fi-ench Camp, Herve Riel, Pheidippides, My Last Duchess, Up at a Villa — Down in 
the City. 

(6) Study. 

One unit. 

This part of the requirement is intended as a natural and logical continuation of the 
student's earlier reading, with greater stress laid upon form and style, the exact mean- 
ing of words and phrases, and the understanding of allusions. For this close reading 
are provided a play, a group of poems, an oration, and an essay, as follows: 

Shakespeare's Macbeth; Milton's L'AUegro, II Penseroso, and Comus; either Bm-ke's 
Speech on Conciliation with America, or both Washington's Farewell Address and 
Webster's Fust Bunker Hill Oration; either Macaulay's Life of Johnson or Carlyle's 
Essay on Bums. 

EoMinination . 

However accurate in subject matter, no paper will be considered satisfactory if 
seriously defective in punctuation, spelling, or other essentials of good usage . 

1 Each unit is set off by semicolon^t 
62400°— 13 ^10 



146 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

The examination will be divided into two parts, one of which may be taken as a 
preliminary, and the other as a final. 

The first part of the examination will be upon 10 units chosen, in accordance with 
the plan described earlier, from the lists headed Reading; and it may include also 
questions upon grammar and the simpler principles of rhetoric, and a short composition 
upon some topic drawn from the student's general knowledge or experience. On the 
books prescribed for reading, the form of the examination will usually be the writ- 
ing of short paragraphs on several topics which the candidate may choose out of a con- 
siderable number. These topics will involve such knowledge and appreciation of 
plot, character development, and other qualities of style and treatment as may be 
fairly expected of boys and girls. In grammar and rhetoric, the candidate may be 
asked specific questions upon the practical essentials of these studies, such as the rela- 
tion of the various parts of a sentence to one another, the construction of individual 
words in a sentence of reasonable difficulty, and those good usages of modem English 
which one should know in distinction from current errors. 

The second part of the examination will include composition and those books com- 
prised in the list headed Study. The test in composition will consist of one or more 
essays, developing a theme through several pai'agraphs; the subjects will be drawn 
from the books prescribed for study, from the candidate's other studies; and from his 
personal knowledge and experiences quite apart from reading. For this purpose the 
examiner will provide several subjects, perhaps 5 or 6, from which the candidate may 
make his own selections. The test on the books prescribed for study will consist of 
questions upon their content, form, and structure, and upon the meaning of such words, 
phrases, and allusions as may be necessary to an understanding of the works and an 
appreciation of their salient qualities of style. General questions may also be asked 
concerning the lives of the authors, their other works, and the periods of literary history 
to which they belong. 

HISTORY. 

The requirement in history is based on the recommendation of the committee of seven of tlie American 
Historical Association. 

(a) Ancient history, with special reference to Greek and Roman history, and includ- 
ing also a short introductory study of the more ancient nations and the chief events of 
the early middle ages, do^vn to the death of Charlemagne (814). One unit. 

(6) Medieval and modern European history, from tho death of Charlemagne to the 
present time. One unit. 

(c) English history. One unit. 

(d) American history and civil government. One tmit. 

The examination in history will be so framed as to require comparison and the use of 
judgment on the pupil's part rather than the mere use of memory. The examinations 
will presuppose the use of good textbooks, collateral reading, and practice in written 
work. Geographical knowledge will be tested by requiring the location of places and 
movements on an outline map. 

LATIN. 

The following requirements in Latin are in accordance with the recommendations made by the Commis- 
sion on College Entrance Requirements in Latin, October, 1909. 

I. AMOUNT AND RANGE OP THE READING REQUIRED. 

1. The Latin reading, without regard to the prescription of particular authors and 
works, shall be not less in amount than Caesar, Gallic War, I-IV; Cicero, the orations 
against Catiline, for the Manilian Law, and for Archias; Vergil, iEneid, I-VI. 

2. The amount of reading specified above shall be selected by the schools from the 
following authors and works: Caesar (Gallic War and Civil War) and Nepos (Lives); 
Cicero (orations, letters, and De Senectute) and Sallust (Catiline and Jugurthine War); 
Vergil (Bucolics, Georgics, and .^neid) and Ovid (Metamorphoses, Fasti, and Tristia). 



EEQUIEEMENTS BY ENTEAlf^CE EXAMUSTATION" BOAED. 147 

II. SCOPE OP THE EXAMINATIONS. 

1. Translation at sight. Candidates will be examined in translation at sight of both 
prose and verse. The vocabulary, constructions, and range of ideas of the passages set 
will be suited to the preparation secured by the reading indicated above. 

2. Prescribed reading. Candidates will be examined also upon the following pre- 
scribed reading: Cicero, orations for the Manilian Law and for Archias, and VergU, 
^neid, I, II, and either IV or VI, at the option of the candidate, with questions on 
subject matter, literaiy and historical allusions, and prosody. Every paper in which 
passages from the prescribed reading are set for translation will contain also one or more 
passages for translation at sight, and candidates must deal satisfactorily with both these 
parts of the paper or they will not be given credit for either pai't. 

3. Grammar and composition. The examinations in grammar and composition will 
demand thorough knowledge of all regular inflections, all common irregular forms, and 
the ordinaiy syntax and vocabulary of the prose authors read in school, with ability to 
use this knowledge in writing simple Latin prose. 

Suggestions concerning preparation. 

Exercises in translation at sight should begin in school with the first lessons in 
which Latin sentences of any length occur, and should continue throughout the course 
with sufficient frequency to insure con-ect methods of work on the part of the student. 
From the outset particular attention should be given to developing the ability to 
take in the meaning of each word — and so, gradually, of the whole sentence — ^just as 
it stands; the sentence should be read and understood in the order of the original, 
with full appreciation of the force of each word as it comes, so far as this can be known 
or inferred from that which has preceded and from the form and the position of the 
word itself. The habit of reading in this way should be encouraged and cultivated 
as the best preparation for all the translating that the student has to do. No transla- 
tion, however, should be a mechanical metaphrase; nor should it be a mere loose 
paraphrase. The full meaning of the passage to be translated, gathered in the way 
described above, should finally be expressed in clear and natural English. 

A written examination can not test the ear or tongue, but proper instruction in any 
language will necessarily include the training of both. The school work in Latin, 
therefore, should include much reading aloud, writing from dictation, and translation 
from the teacher's reading. Learning suitable passages by heart is also very useful 
and should be more practiced. 

The work in composition should give the student a better understanding of the 
Latin he is reading at the time, if it is prose, and greater facility in reading. It is 
desirable, however, that there should be systematic and regular work in composition 
during the time in which poetry is read as well; for this work the prose authors already 
studied should be used as models. 

Subjects for examination. 

As a tentative assignment of values 1, 2, 4, and 5 are counted as 1 unit each, 3 as 2 
units, and 6 as J unit; but 3 has no assigned value unless offered alone, 2 and 6 have 
no assigned values unless offered with 4 or 5, and in no case is the total requirement 
to be counted as more than 4 units. 

It is understood that this assignment of values will be reconsidered after the require- 
ments have had a year or two of trial. 

1. Grammar. The examination will presuppose the reading of the requii'ed amount 
of prose (see I, 1 and 2), including the prose works prescribed (see II, 2). 

2. Elementary prose composition. The examination will presuppose the reading of 
the required amount of prose (see I, 1 and 2), including the prose works prescribed 
(see II, 2). 



148 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

3. Second-year Latin. This examination is offered primarily for candidates intend- 
ing to enter colleges which require only 2 years of Latin or accept so much as a com- 
plete preparatory course. It will presuppose reading not less in amount than Caesar, 
Gallic War, I-I V, selected by the schools from Csesar (Gallic War and Civil War) and 
Nepos (Lives); but the passages set will be chosen with a view to sight translation. 
The paper will include easy grammatical questions and some simple composition. 

4. Cicero (orations for the Manilian Law and for Archias) and sight translation of 
prose. The examination will presuppose the reading of the required amount of 
prose (see I, 1 and 2). 

Vergil (^Eneid, I, II, and either IV or VI, at the option of the candidate) and sight 
translation of poetry. The examination will presuppose the reading of the required 
amount of poetry (see I, 1 and 2), 

6. Advanced prose composition. 

GREEK. 

The following requirements in Greek are selected in as close accordance with the recommendations of 
the American Philological Association as is practicable. 

(a) i. Grammar: The topics for the examination in Greek grammar are similar to 
those detailed under Latin grammar. ^ (See p. 147.) One-half unit. 

(a) ii. Elementary prose composition, consisting principally of detached sentences 
to test the candidate's knowledge of grammatical constructions.' One-half unit. 

The examination in grammar and prose composition will be based on the first 2 
books of Xenophon's Anabasis. 

(6) Xenophon: The first 4 books of the Anabasis. One unit. 

(c) Homer — Iliad, I-III: The first 3 books of the Iliad (omitting II, 494-end), and 
the Homeric constructions, form and prosody. One unit. 

(/) Prose composition, consisting of continuous prose based on Xenophon and other 
Attic prose of similar difficulty. One-half unit. 

(g) Sight translation of prose of no greater difficulty than Xenophon's Anabasis. 

(A) Sight translation of Homer. 

(ch) Homer — Iliad, I-III, and sight translation of Homer. One unit. 

FRENCH. 

The requirements in French follow the recommendations of the committee of twelve of the Modern 
Language Association. 

(a) ELEMENTARY FRENCH. 

(2 units.) 
The aim of the instruction. 

At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to pronounce French 
accurately, to read at sight easy French prose, to put into French simple English 
sentences taken from the language of everyday life or based upon a portion of the French 
text read, and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar as defined below. 

The work to be done. 

During the first year the work should comprise: 

1. Careful drill in pronunciation. 

2. The rudiments of grammar, including the inflection of the regular and the more 
common irregular verbs, the plural nouns, the inflection of adjectives, participles, 

1 Some of the colleges accepting the board's examinations consider Greek (o) i and Greek (a) ii as together 
constituting a single examination subject. Candidates for admission to such colleges should not offer one 
without the other. 



KEQUIEEMEKTS BY ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOAED. 149 

and pronouns; the use of personal pronouns, common adverbs, prepositions, and 
conjunctions; the order of words in the sentence, and the elementary rules of syntax. 

3. Abundant easy exercises, designed not only to fix in the memory the forms and 
principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural 
forms of expression. 

4. The reading of from 100 to 175 duodecimo pages of graduated texts, with con- 
stant practice in translating into French easy variations of the sentences read (the 
teacher giving the English) and in reproducing from memory sentences previously 
read. 

5. Writing French from dictation. 

During the second year the work should comprise: 

1. The reading of from 250 to 400 pages of easy modern prose in the form of stories, 
plays, or historical or biographical sketches. 

2. Constant practice, as in the previous year, in translating into French easy varia- 
tions upon the texts read. 

3. Frequent abstracts, sometimes oral and sometimes written, of portions of the 
text already read. 

4. Writing French from dictation. 

5. Continued drill upon the rudiments of grammar, with constant application in 
the construction of sentences. 

6. Mastery of the forms and use of pronouns, pronominal adjectives, of all but the 
rare irregular verb forms, and of the simpler uses of the conditional and subjunctive. 

Suitable texts for the second year are: About's Le roi des montagnes, Bruno's Le 
tour de la France, Baudot's easier short tales, La Bedolliere's La Mere Michel et son 
chat, Erckmann-Chatrian's stories, Foa's Contes biographiques, and Le petit Rob- 
inson de Paris, Foncin's Le Pays de France, Labiche and Martin's La poudre aux 
yeux and Le voyage de M. Perrichon, Legouve and Labiche's La cigale chez les 
fourmis, Malot's Sans famille, Mairet's La tache du petit Pierre, Merimee's Colomba, 
extracts from Michelet, Sarcey's Le siege de Paris, Verne's stories. 

(6) INTERMEDIATE FRENCH. 
(1 unit.) 

The aim of the instruction. 

At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to read at sight 
ordinary French prose or simple poetry, to translate into French a connected passage 
of English based on the text read, and to answer questions involving a more thorough 
knowledge of syntax than is expected in the elementary course. 

The work to be done. 

This should comprise the reading of from 400 to 600 pages of French of ordinary 
difficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic form; constant practice in giving French 
paraphrases, abstracts or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the 
matter read; the study of a grammar of moderate completeness; writing from 
dictation. 

Suitable texts are: About's stories, Augier and Sandeau's Le gendre de M. Poirier, 
Beranger's poems, Corneille's Le Cid and Horace, Coppee's poems, Daudet's La Belle- 
Nivernaise, La Brfete's Mon oncle et mon cure, Madame de Sevigne's letters, Hugo's 
Hemani and La chute, Labiche's plays, Loti's Pecheur d'Islande, Mignet's historical 
writings, Moliere's L'avare and Le bourgeois gentilhomme, Racine's Athalie, Andro- 
maque and Esther, George Sand's plays and stories, Sandeau's Mademoiselle de la 
Seigliere, Scribe's plays, Thierry's Recits des temps m^rovingiens, Thiers's L'exp6- 
dition de Bonaparte en Egypte, Vigny's La canne de jonc, Voltaire's historical 
writings. 



150 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

(c) ADVANCED FRENCH. 
(1 unit.) 

The aim oj the instruction. 

At the end of the advanced course the pupil should be able to read at sight, with 
the help of a vocabulary of special or technical expressions, difficult French not earlier 
than that of the seventeenth century; to write in French a short essay on some simple 
subject connected with the works read; to put into French a passage of easy English 
prose, and to cany on a simple conversation in Fsench. 

The work to he done. 

This should comprise the reading of from 600 to 1,000 pages of standard French, 
classical and modem, only difficult passages being explained in the class; the writing 
of numerous short themes in French; the study of syntax. 

Suitable reading matter will be: Beaumarchais's Barbier de Seville; Comeille's 
dramas; the elder Dumas's prose writings; the younger Dumas's La question d'argent; 
Hugo's Ruy Bias, lyrics and prose writings; La Fontaine's Fables; Lamartine's 
Graziella; Marivaux's plays; Moliere's plays; Musset's plays and poems; Pellissier's 
Mouvement litt^raire au XIX^ siecle; Renan's Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse; 
Rousseau's writings; Sainte-Beuve's essays; Taine's Origines de la France contempo- 
raine; Voltaire's writings; selections from Zola, Maupassant, and Balzac. 

{he) INTERMEDIATE FRENCH AND ADVANCED FRENCH. 
(2 units.) 

GERMAN. 

The requirements in German follow the recommendations of the committee of twelve of the Modem 
Language Association. 

(a) ELEMENTARY GERMAN. 
(2 units.) 

The aim oj the instruction. 

At the end of the elementary course in German the pupil should be able to read at 
sight, and to translate, if called upon, by way of proving ability to read, a passage of 
very easy dialogue or narrative prose, help being given upon unusual words and con- 
struction, to put into German short English sentences taken from the language of 
everyday life or based upon the text given for translation, and to answer questions 
upon the rudiments of the grammar, as defined below. 

The loork to he done. 

During the first year the work should comprise : 

1. Careful drill upon pronunciation. 

2. The memorizing and frequent repetition of easy colloquial sentences. 

3. Drill upon the rudiments of grammar, that is, upon the inflection of the articles, 
of such nouns as belong to the language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, 
weak verbs, and the more usual strong verbs; also upon the use of the more common 
prepositions, the simpler uses of the modal auxiliaries, and the elementary rules of 
syntax and word-order. 

4. Abundant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the forms and princi- 
ples of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms of 
expression. 

5. The reading of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from a reader, with constant 
practice in translating into German easy variations upon sentences selected from the 



EEQUIREMENTS BY ENTEANCE EXAMINATION BOAED, 151 

reading lesson (the teacher giving the English), and. in the reproduction from memory 
of sentences previously read. 
During the second year the work should comprise : 

1. The reading of from 150 to 200 pages of literatm-e in the form of easy stories and 
plays. 

2. Accompanying practice, as before, in the translation into German of easy varia- 
tions upon the matter read and also in the off-hand reproduction, sometimes orally 
and sometimes in writing, of the substance of short and easy selected passages. 

3. Contiaued drill upon the rudiments of the grammar, directed to the ends of 
enabling the pupil, first, to use his or her knowledge with facility in the formation of 
sentences, and, secondly, to state his or her knowledge correctly in the technical 
language of grammar. 

Stories suitable for the elementary course can be selected from the following list: An- 
dersen's Marchen and Bilderbuch ohne Bilder; Arnold's Fritz auf Ferien; Baumbach's 
Die Nonnaand Der Schwiegersohn; Gerstilcker'sGermelshausen; Heyse'sL'Arrabbiata, 
Das Madchen von Treppi, and Anfang und Ende; Hillem's Hoher als die Kii-che; 
Jensen's Die braune Erica; Leander's Traumereien and Kleine Geschichten; Seidel's 
Marchen; Stokl's Unter dem Christbaiim; Storm's Immensee and Geschichten aus 
der Tonne; Zschokke's Der zerbrochene Krug. 

Good plays adapted to the elementary course are much harder to find than good 
stories. Five-act plays are too long. They require more time than is advisable to 
devote to any one text. Among shorter plays the best available are perhaps Benedix's 
Der Prozess, Der Weiberfeind, and Giinstige Vorzeichen; Elz's Er. ist nicht eifer- 
siichtig; Wichert's An der Majorsecke; WiUielmi's Einer muss heiraten. It is recom- 
mended, however, that not more than one of these plays be read. The nan-ative style 
should predomiaate. A good selection of reading matter for the second year would be 
Andersen's Marchen or Bilderbuch or Leander's Traumereien, to the extent of, say, 
40 pages. After that such a story as Das kalte Herz or Der zerbrochene Krug; then 
Hoher als die Kirche or Immensee; next a good story by Heyse, Baumbach, or Seidel; 
lastly Der Prozess. 

(6) INTERMEDIATE GERMAN. 
(1 unit.) 

The aim of the instruction. 

At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to read at sight 
German prose of ordinary difficulty, whether recent or classical, to put into German a 
connected passage of simple English, paraphrased from a given text in German, to 
answer any grammatical questions relating to usual forms and essential principles of 
the language, including syntax and word formation, and to translate and explain (so 
far as explanation may be necessary) a passage of classical literature taken from some 
text previously studied. 

The work to he done. 

The work should comprise, in addition to the elementary course, the reading of about 
400 pages of moderately difficult prose and poetry, with constant practice in giviag, 
sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, paraphrases, abstracts, or reproductions 
from memory of selected portions of the matter read; also grammatical drill upon the 
less usual strong verbs, the use of articles, cases, auxiliaries of all kinds, tenses and 
modes (with special reference to the infinitive and subjunctive), and likewise upon 
word order and word formation. 

Suitable reading matter can be selected from such works as the following: Ebner- 
Eschenbach's Die Freiherren von Gemperlein; Freytag's Die Joumalisten and Bilder 
aus der deutschen Vergangenheit — for example, Karl der Grosse, Aus den Kreuz- 



152 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

ziigen, Doktor Luther, Aus dem Staat Friedrichs des Grossen; Fouque's Undine; 
Gerstiicker's Irrfahrten; Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea and Iphigenie; Heine's 
poems and Reisebilder; Hoffmann's Historische Erzahlungen; Lessing's Minna von 
Barnhelm; Meyer's Gustav Adolf's Page; Moser's Der Bibliothekar; Riehl'sNovellen, 
for example, Burg Neideck, Der Fluch der Schonheit, Der stumme Ratsherr, Das 
Spielmannkind; Rosegger's Waldheimat; Schiller's Der Neffe als Onkel, Der Geister- 
seher, Wilhelm Tell, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Das Lied von der Glocke, Balladen; 
Scheffel's Der Trompeter von Sakkingen; Uhland's poems; Wildenbruch's Das edle 
Blut. 

(c) ADVANCED GERMAN. 

(1 unit.) 
The aim of the instruction. 

At the end of the advanced course the student should be able to read, after brief 
inspection, any German literature of the last 150 years that is free from any unusual 
textual difficulties, to put into German a passage of simple English prose, to answer 
in German questions relating to the lives and works of great writers studied, and to write 
in German a short independent theme upon some assigned topic. 

The work to he done. 

The work of the advanced course should comprise the reading of about 500 pages of 
good literature in prose and poetry, reference readings upon the lives and works of 
the great writers studied, the writing in German of numerous short themes upon 
assigned subjects, independent translation of English into German. Suitable reading 
matter will be: Freytag's Soil und Haben; Fulda's Der Talisman; Goethe's dramas 
(except Faust) and prose writings (say, extracts from Werther and Dichtung und 
Wahrheit); Grillparzer's Ahnfrau or Der Traum ein Leben; Hauff's Lichtenstein ; 
Heine's more difficult prose (for example, Ueber Deutschland); Kleist's Prinz von 
Homburg; Korner's Zriny; Lessing's Emilia Galotti and prose writings (say, extracts 
from the Hamburgische Dramaturgie or Laokoon); Scheffel's Ekkehard; Schiller's 
Wallenstein, Maria Stuart, Braut von Messina, and historical prose (say, the third 
book of the Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges); Sudermann's Johannes; Tieck's 
Genoveva; Wildenbruch's Heinrich. 

(6c) INTERMEDIATE GERMAN AND ADVANCED GERMAN. 
(2 units.) 

SPANISH. 

(2 units.) 

The requirement in Spanish follows the form and spirit of the recommendations made for French and 
German by the committee of twelve of the Modem Language Association. 

The aim of the instruction. 

At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to pronounce Spanish 
accurately, to read at sight easy Spanish prose, to put into Spanish simple English 
sentences taken from the language of everyday life or based upon a portion of the 
Spanish text read, and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar, as defined 
below. 

The work to he done. 

During the first year the work should comprise: 

1. Careful drill in pronunciation. 

2. The rudiments of grammar, including the conjugation of the regular and the more 
common irregular verbs, the inflection of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, and the 
elementary rules of syntax. 



EEQUIEEMEISTTS BY ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOAED. 153 

3. Exercises containing illustrations of the principles of grammar. 

4. The reading and accurate rendering into good English of from 100 to 175 duo- 
decimo pages of graduated texts, with translation into Spanish of easy variations of 
the sentences read. 

5. Writing Spanish from dictation. 

During the second year the work should comprise : 

1. The reading of from 250 to 400 pages of modern prose from different authors. 

2. Practice in translating Spanish into English and English variations of the text 
into Spanish. 

3. Continued study of the elements of grammar and syntax. 

4. Mastery of all but the rare irregular verb forms and of the simpler uses of the modes 
and tenses. 

5. Writing Spanish from dictation. 

6. Memorizing of easy short poems. 

Suitable texts for the second year are: Valera's El pajaro verde; Alarcon's El final 
de Norma; Valdes's Jose; Galdos's Dona Perfecta, Mariamela; Padre Isla's version of 
Gil Bias; Carrion and Aza's Zaragiieta. 

MATHEMATICS. 

The present definition of the requirements in mathematics is in accordance with recommendations made 
in September, 1903, by a committee of the American Mathematical Society. 

(a) ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA — ^ALGEBRA TO QUADRATICS AND QUADRATICS AND BEYOND. 

i. Algebra to quadratics. 

One unit. 

The four fundamental operations for rational algebraic expressions. 

Factoring, determination of highest common factor and lowest common multiple by 

factoring. 
Fractions, including complex fractions, and ratio and proportion. 
Linear equations, both numerical and literal, containing one or more unknown 

quantities. 
Problems depending on linear equations. 

Radicals, including the extraction of the square root of polynomials ana of numbers. 
Exponents, including the fractional and negative. 

ii. Quadratics and beyond. 

One-half imit. 

Quadratic equations, both numerical and literal. 

Simple cases of equations with one or more unknown quantities, that can be solved 

by the methods of linear or quadratic equations. 
Problems depending on quadratic equations. 
The binomial theorem for positive integi'al exponents. 
The formulas for the nth term and the sum of the terms of arithmetical and geometric 

progressions, with applications. 

It is assumed that pupils will be required throughout the course to solve numerous 
problems which involve putting questions into equations. Some of these problems 
should be chosen from mensuration, fi-om physics, and from commercial life. The 
use of graphical methods and illustrations, particularly in connection with the solution 
of equations, is also expected. 



154 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

(b) Advanced algebra. 
One-half unit. 

Permutations and combinations, limited to simple cases. 

Complex numbers, with graphical representation of sums and differences. 

Determinants, chiefly of the second, third, and fourth orders, including the use of 
minors and the solution of linear equations. 

Numerical equations of higher degree, and so much of the theory of equations, with 
graphical methods, as is necessary for their treatment, including Descartes's rule 
of signs and Horner's method, but not Sturm's functions or multiple roots. 

(c) Plane geometry. 

One unit. 

The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, including the general prop- 
erties of plane rectilinear figures; the cii-cle and the measurement of angles; 
similar polygons; areas; regular polygons and the measurement of the circle. 

The solution of numerous original exercises, including loci problems. 

Applications to the mensuration of lines and plane surfaces. 

(d) Solid geometry. 
One-half unit. 

The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, including the relations of 
planes and lines in space; the properties and measurement of prisms, pyramids, 
cylinders, and cones; the sphere and the spherical triangle. 

The solution of numerous original exercises, including loci problems. 

Applications to the mensuration of surfaces and solids. 

{cd) Plane geometry and solid geometry 
One and one-half units. 

(e) Trigonometry. 
One-half unit. 

Definitions and relations of the six trigonometric functions as ratios; circular measure- 
ment of angles. 

Proofs of principal formulas, in particular for the sine, cosine, and tangent of the sum 
and the difference of 2 angles, of the double angle and the half angle, the product 
expressions for the sum or the difference of 2 sines or of 2 cosines, etc.; the trans- 
formation of trigonometric expressions by means of these formulas. 

Solution of trigonometric equations of a simple character. 

Theory and use of logarithms (without the introduction of work involving infinite 
series) . 

The solution of right and oblique triangles and practical applications, including the 
solution of right spherical triangles. 

(/) Plane trigonometry. 
One-half xmit. 

This subject is the same as the preceding except that no topics from spherical trigo- 
nometry are included. 

The following are the recommendations of a conference of representatives of the 
departments of mathematics of 15 of the New England colleges and universities 
May 28, 1910: 

They recommended to the colleges that they omit from their definitions of elemen- 
tary algebra any topics which are not included in the College Entrance Examination 
Board's definition of that subject, and that they state their requirements in elementary 



I 



KEQUIEEMENTS BY ENTRAlSrCE EXAMINATION BOAED. 155 

algebra in such a manner as to show which, if any, of the topics in the College Entrance 
Examination Board's definitions are omitted or are not emphasized by them. They 
recommended the adoption of the board's definitions of the requirements in plane 
geometry, solid geometry, plane and solid geometry, trigonometry, plane trigonometry, 
and advanced algebra, and that the members of the conference endeavor to persuade 
the faculties which they respectively represent to adopt these definitions. It was voted 
also that the conference recommend to the College Entrance Examination Board that 
no reduction in the time allowed to the individual subjects of mathematics in the exam- 
ination schedule be made; but that mathematics a and mathematics cd continue to 
have 3 hours and that all other divisions of mathematics continue to have 2 hours 
each in the time schedule of the board's examinations. (Science, July 15, 1910, p. 77.) 

PHYSICS. 



GENERAL STATEMENT. 

1. The course of instruction in physics. should include: 

a. The study of one standard textbook, for the purpose of obtaining a connected 
and comprehensive view of the subject. The student should be given opportunity 
and encouragement to consult other scientific literature. 

b. Instructiofi by lectm-e table demonstrations, to be used mainly for illustration 
of the facts and phenomena of physics in their qualitative aspects and in their practical 
applications. 

c. Individual laboratory work consisting of experiments requiring at least the time 
of 30 double periods, 2 hours in the laboratory to be counted as equivalent to 1 hour 
of classroom work. The experiments performed by each student should number at 
least 30. Those named in the appended list are suggested as suitable. The work 
should be so distributed as to give a wide range of observation and practice. 

The aim of laboratory work should be to supplement the pupU's fund of concrete 
knowledge and to cultivate his power of accurate observation and clearness of thought 
and expression. The exercises should be chosen with a view to furnishing forceful 
illustrations of fundamental principles and their practical applications. They should 
be such as yield results capable of ready interpretation, obviously in conformity with 
theory, and free from the disguise of unintelligible units. 

Slovenly work should not be tolerated, but the effort for precision should not lead 
to the use of apparatus or processes so complicated as to obscure the principle involved. 

2. Throughout the whole course special attention should be paid to the common 
illustrations of physical laws and to their industrial applications. 

3. In the solution of numerical problems, the student should be encoiuraged to 
make use of the simple principles of algebra and geometry to reduce the difficulties 
of solution. Unnecessary mathematical difficulties should be avoided and care should 
be exercised to prevent the student from losing sight of the concrete facts in the 
manipulation of symbols. 

SYLLABUS. 

The following is a list of topics which are deemed fundamental and which should 
therefore be included in every well-planned course of elementary physics. Only a 
few of the most important applications of these topics have been mentioned; teachers 
should add liberally to them. It is expected that the teacher will arrange these 
topics in such order as will suit his individual needs. 

I. Introduction: (a) Metric system — Linear measure, units — meter, centimeter, 
millimeter; square measure — square centimeter; cubic measure — cubic centimeter, 
liter; mass — kilogram, gram; (6) volume, weight, density; (c) states of matter — solids, 
liquids, gases. 



156 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

II. Mechanics: Fluids — (a) Pascal's law of fluid pressure; the hydraulic press; 
(b) pressure due to gravity; pressure varying with depth and density of the liquid; 
total pressure on the bottom of a vessel; (c) principle of Archimedes; (d) specific 
gravity of solids and liquids; (e) gases — relation between pressure and volume; (/ ) 
atmosphere pressure, buoyancy, the barometer, pumps for liquids and gases. Solids^ 
(a) principle of moments; parallelogram of forces (resolution of forces, rectangular 
only); (6) Newton's laws of motion; force, momentum, velocity, acceleration; uni- 
formly accelerated motion, when initial or final velocity is zero; falling bodies; (c) 
mechanical work; energy — potential and kinetic; conservation of energy; (d) Ma- 
chines — principle of work applied to machines, mechanical advantage, friction, 
efficiency (use terms, effort, and resistance); lever, wheel and axle, pulleys, inclined 
plane; (e) uniform circular motion; centrifugal and centripetal forces qualitatively 
illusti-ated; (/) law of universal gravitation; relation of weight to mass; center of 
gravity; stability. 

III. Heat: (a) Heat — a form of energy; temperature, centigrade and Fahrenheit 
scales; (6) conduction, convection, and radiation; (c) expansion of solids, coefficient 
of linear expansion; expansion of liquids, anomalous expansion of water; expansion 
of gases, law of Charles, absolute zero; (d) change of state; fusion, the melting point; 
vaporization, boiling, evaporation; (e) measurement of heat, latent and specific heat; 
(/) mechanical equivalent of heat. 

IV. Sound: (a) nature and 'origin of sound; (b) pitch, loudness, quality; (c) 
velocity; (d) reflection of sound, echoes; (e) resonance. 

V. Light: (a) definitions — light, luminous bodies, illuminated bodies, transparent, 
translucent, and opaque bodies; (b) rectilinear propagation of light in a homogeneous 
medium, shadows, pinhole camera; (c) photometry; intensity of light (source) and 
intensity of illumination distinguished; law of inverse squares; (c?) reflection; law of 
reflection; regular and diffused reflection; plane and spherical mirrors, position and 
character of images; (e) refraction; laws of refraction (qualitative); refraction by plates, 
prisms and lenses; lenses — converging and diverging, conjugate foci, principal focus, 
principal axis; position and character of real and virtual images formed by converging 
lenses; dispersion, color and the spectrum; applications: the camera, the human eye, 
the compound microscope, the telescope. 

VI. Magnetism: (a) Magnets, permanent and temporary; (6) polarity, magnetic 
attraction and repulsion; (c) magnetic induction, magnetic field and lines of force, 
permeability; (d) the earth as a magnet, compass, declination, dip. 

VII. Static Electricity: (a) Electrification by friction; two kinds; (6) electrical 
attraction and repulsion; electroscopes; (c) conductors and insulators; electrification 
by induction; (d) condensers. 

VIII. Current Electricity: (a) Simple voltaic cell; electro-chemical action; 
local action and polarization; prevention of polarization; (b) types of cells (Daniel, 
Leclanche); (c) electrolysis; the ampere; electrolysis of water, electro-deposition of 
metals; storage cell; (d) electro-magnetism; magnetic field around a current; relation 
between direction of current and lines of magnetic force; electro-magnets, ampere 
turns (qualitative); the electric bell and the telegraph; (e) resistance; the ohm; 
ohm's law; the volt; power (the watt and the watt hour); (/) heating effects; fuse 
wire and electric heater; arc and incandescent lamps; (17) measuring instruments — 
galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, resistance box; (h) series and parallel connection 
of cells, lamps, etc.; (i) fall of potential in a circuit; (j) electro-magnetic induction; 
direction and magnitude of the induced electro-motive force; simple 2-pole dynamo 
and motor; simple alternating and direct current generator; transformer, induction 
coil, telephone. 



KEQUIEEMENTS BY ENTBAIS^CE EXAMINATION BOAED. 157 

list op experiments. 
Mechanics: 

1. Weight of unit volume of a substance, prism, or cylinder. 

2. Principle of Archimedes. 

3. Specific gravity of a solid body that will sink in water. 

4. Specific gravity of a liquid, two methods (bottle and displacement methods); or, 

5. Specific gravity of a liquid by balancing columns. 

6. Boyle's law. 

7. Density of air. 

8. Hooke's law. 

9. Strength of material. 

10. The straight lever, principle of moments. 

11. Center of gravity and weight of a lever. 

12. Parallelogram of forces. 

13. Four forces at right angles in one plane. 

14. CoeflBcient of friction between solid bodies — on a level and by sliding on an 

incline. 

15. Efficiency test of some elementary machine, either pulley, inclined plane, or 

wheel and axle. 

16. Laws of the pendulum. 

17. Laws of accelerated motion. 
Heat: 

18. The mercury thermometer: Relation between pressure of steam and its tem- 

perature. 

19. Linear expansion of a solid. 

20. Increase of pressure of a gas heated at constant volume; or, 

21. Increase of volume of a gas heated at constant pressure. 

22. Heat of fusion of ice. 

23. Cooling curve through change of state (during solidification). 

24. Heat of vaporization of water. 

25. Determination of the dew point. 

26. Specific heat of a solid. 
Sound: 

27. Velocity of sound. 

28. Wave length of soimd. 

29. Number of vibrations of a tuning fork. 
Light: 

30. Use of photometer. 

31. Images in a plane mirror. 

32. Images formed by a convex mirror. 

33. Images formed by a concave mirror. 

34. Index of refraction of glass; or, 

35. Index of refraction of water. 

36. Focal length and conjugate foci of a converging lens. 

37. Shape and size of a real image formed by a lens. 

38. Magnifyitjg power of a lens. 

39. Construction of model of telescope or compound microscope. 
Magnetism and Electricity: 

40. Study of magnetic field. 

41. Magnetic induction. 

42. Study of a single fluid voltaic cell. 

43. Study of a two fluid voltaic cell. 

44. Magnetic eiSect on an electric current. 

45. Electrolysis. 



158 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Magnetism and Electricity — Continued. 

46. Laws of electrical resistance of wires; various lengths, cross-section, and in 

parallel. 

47. Resistance measured by volt-ammeter method. 

48. Resistance measiued by Wheatstone's bridge. 

49. Battery resistance — combination of cells. 

50. Study of induced ciurents. 

51. Power or efficiency test of a small electric motor. 

CERTIFICATE REQUIRED. 

In lieu of the presentation of the laboratory notebook at the time of the examination 
the candidate must present a certificate in the following form: 

Teacher's Certificate. 

; School. 

19.... 

I certify that has personally performed 

and properly recorded in a suitable notebook experiments in the 

physical laboratory of the School, diuing the year 

The entire course has occupied time equal to hours of 60 minutes each, 

of which hoius have been given to the laboratory work and hours 

to lecture and recitation work. 

Signed 

Teacher of Physics. 
The teacher may here enter the final grade of . 1 per cent. 

CHEMISTRY. 

(limit.) 

The requirement in chemistry is based on the report of the committee on chemistry of the science depart- 
ment of the National Education Association. 

The following outline includes only the indispensable things which must be studied 
in the classroom and laboratory. The material is, for the most part, common to all 
elementary textl^ooks and laboratory manuals. Each Ijook makes its own selection 
of facts Ijeyond those which may be necessary for the illustration of the principles of 
the science. The order of presentation will naturally be determined by the teacher. 

Outline.— The chief physical and chemical characteristics, the preparation and the 
recognition of the following elements and their chief compounds: Oxygen, hydrogen, 
carbon, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, 
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, mercury, silver, aluminum, 
lead, tin, iron, manganese, chromium. 

More detailed study should be confined to the italicized elements (as such) and to a 
restricted list of compounds, such as: Water, hydrochloric acid, carbon-monoxide, 
carbon-dioxide, nitric acid, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, hydrogen- 
sulphide, sodium-hydroxide. 

Attention should be given to the atmosphere (constitution and relation to animal 
and vegetable life), flames, acids, bases, salts, oxidation and reduction, crystallization, 
manufacturing processes, familiar substances (illuminating gas, explosives, baking 
powder, mortar, glass, metallurgy, steel, common alloys, porcelain, soap). 

Combining proportions by weight and volume; calculations founded on these and 
Boyle's and Charles's laws; symbols and nomenclature (with careful avoidance of 
special stress, since these are nonessential) ; atomic theory, atomic weights and valency 
in a very elementary way; nascent state; natural grouping of the elements; solution 
(solvents and solubility of gases, liquids, and solids, saturation); ionization; mass 
action and equilibrium; strength (activity) of acids and bases; conservation and 



EEQUIEEMENTS BY ENTEANCE EXAMINATIOISr BOAED. 159 

dissipation of energy; chemical energy (very elementary); electrolysis. Chemical 
terms should be defined and explained, and the pupil should be able to illustrate and 
apply the ideas they embody. The theoretical topics are not intended to form separate 
subjects of study, but should be taught only so far as is necessary for the correlation and 
explanation of the experimental facts. 

The facts should be given as examples from A'^arious classes, and not as isolated things. 
Thus, to speak of a "standard method of preparing hydrogen," whereby the action of 
zinc on hydrochloric acid is meant, shows narrow and infertile teaching. It should 
be shown that all acids are acted upon by certain classes of metals to produce hydrogen. 
Examples of both classes of metals should be given and the general principles derived. 
The reason for using zinc and hydrochloric acid m the laboratory can then be stated. 
It is recommended that the candidate's preparation in chemistry should include: 
(1) Individual laboratory work, comprising at least 40 exercises selected from a list 
of 60 or more, not very different from the list given below. 
• (2) Instruction l)y lecture-table demonstrations, to be used mainly as a basis for 
questioning upon the general principles involved in the pupil's laboratory 
investigations. 
(3) The study of at least one standard textbook, to the end that the pupil may gain 
a comprehensive and connected view of the most important facts and laws of 
elementary chemistry. 

List of Experiments. 
General — 

1. Composition of the atmosphere. 

2. Dissociation of mercuric oxide, and study of resulting products. 

3. Burning of magnesium, sodium, and potassium in air, and of iron in oxygen, 

with study of resulting products. 

4. Combination of substances produced in (3) with water, and study of results. 

5. Burning of sulphur and phosphorus in air; study of products. 

6. Combination of stubstances produced in (5) with water; study of products. 

7. Treatment of substances resulting from (3) and (4) with hydrochloric acid, and 

examination of final products. 
Laws of Gas Volumes and Vapor Tension — 

8. Boyle's Law. 

9. Charles's Law. 

10. Vapor tension as related to temperature. 
Common Elements and Compounds — 

11. Preparation and study of oxygen. 

12.. Weight of a liter of oxygen under standard conditions. 

13. Preparation of hydrogen by action of sodium on water. Careful study of by- 

product. 

14. Preparation of hydrogen by zinc and acid. More thorough study of hydrogen 

in larger quantities. Study of by-product. 

15. Weight of a liter of hydrogen under standard conditions. (Optional for best 

students.) 

16. Proportion by weight in which hydrogen and oxygen unite. (Lecture demon- 

strations with eudiometer.) 

17. Proportion by weight in which hydrogen and oxygen combine. 

18. Study of boiling point, freezing point, action on litmus, and taste of substance 

produced by combining oxygen and hydrogen. 

19. Electrolysis of water, resulting gases being accurately measured and tested. 

20. Vapor density of water, conclusion as to formula for water. (Optional for best 

pupils.) 

21. Study of sodium, potassium, lithium, strontium, calcium, and barium com- 

pounds. Detection of presence of these metals by flame tests and by spectro- 
scope. 



160 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Common Elements and Compounds — Continued. 

22. Study of salts of cobalt, copper, nickel, manganese, chromium, iron. Tests 

for these metals and those mentioned in 21 in unknown mixtures. 

23. Study of compounds of aluminum, magnesium, and zinc. Tests for these in 

mixtures of 21 and 22. 

24. Tests for silver, lead, and bismuth in unknown mixtures of 21, 22, and 23. 

25. Tests for mercury and arsenic in unknown mixtures of 21, 22, 23, and 24. 

26. Preparation and study of chlorine gas. 

27. Weight of a liter of chlorine. 

28. Combustion of chlorine in hydrogen. 

29. Preparation of hydrochloric acid and study of properties. 

30. Decomposition of hydrochloric acid gas by sodium amalgam, and conclusions 

as to percentage composition. Avogadro's Law. 

31. Preparation and study of at least 3 chlorides. 

32. Preparation and study of bromine. 

33. Preparation of at least 3 bromides. 

34. Preparation and study of iodine. 

35. Preparation of at least 3 iodides. 

36. Comparative study of the chemism of chlorine, bromine, and iodine by mutual 

displacement. 

37. Study of hydrofluoric acid and fluorides. 

38. Determination of the combining proportion of chlorine and zinc and the atomic 

weight of zinc. 

39. Atomic weight of zinc from specific heat. Law of Dulong and Petit. 

40. Atomic weight of silver liy displacement of zinc. 

41. Study of forms of sulphur. 

42. Direct formation of sulphides. 

43. Study of sulphurous oxide. 

44. Preparation of sulphurous and sulphuric acids. 

45. Preparation of at least 2 sulphites and 2 corresponding sulphates. Comparative 

study of these. 

46. Decomposition of ammonium nitrate and study of nitrous oxide. 

47. To determine the composition of nitrous oxide. Gay-Lussac's Law. 

48. Preparation and study of nitric acid. 

49. Preparation of 3 nitrates in 3 different ways. 

60. Composition of gas formed by action of cold dilute nitric acid on copper. 

51. Composition of gas formed by union of nitric oxide and oxygen. 

52. Preparation of chromic anhydride, chromic acid, and potassium chromate. 

53. Changing potassium chromate to potassium bichromate and back again. Oxida- 

tion and reduction in solutions. 

54. Chromium as an acid-forming and as a base-forming element. Preparation of 

chromium sulphate. 

55. Preparation of feirous and ferric salts. 
Carbon and some Carbon Compounds — 

56. Product of burning charcoal. T^sts. 

57. Test for presence of carbon in wood, paper, kerosene, coal gas, alcohol. 

58. Preparation of three carbonates. 

59. Solubility of carbonates in the presence of carbon dioxide. ' 

60. Effect of heat on suspension of carbonates in solution. 

61. Carbon dioxide from fermentation. 

62. Alcohol from fermentation. 

63. Preparation of ether by alcohol and sulphuric acid. 

64. Preparation of alkaline salts of fatty acids, or soap making. 



REQUIREMENTS BY ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD. 161 

LABORATORY NOTEBOOK. 

WTiile the College Entrance Examination Board does not require the submission of 
the candidate's laboratory notebook as pait of the examination in chemistry, it requires 
the submission of a teacher's certificate descriptive of the notebook. The notebook 
should be forwarded directly to the proper authorities of the college or scientific school 
which the candidate purposes entering. The notebook must contain: 

(1) A brief description in the pupil's own words of the materials and appaiatus em- 

ployed and the operations performed in each experiment, sketches being 
used to represent apparatus where this is practicable. 

(2) Records in the pupil's own words of phenomena as actually observed in the 

course of each experiment. 

(3) A statement of the important conclusions which may properly be drawn fi-om 

the phenomena as observed. 
Special importance should be attached to the evidence which the notebook affords 
of independent and careful thought on the part of the pupil, as indicated by ability to 
recognize and express clearly the significance of the work actually performed. State- 
ments which have been merely transcribed from textbooks or manuals are by no means 
satisfactory. The notebook should contain an index of experiments. 

CERTIFICATE REQUIRED. 

In lieu of the presentation of the laboratory notebook at the time of the examination 
the candidate must present a certificate in the following form: 

Teacher's Certificate. 

(School) 

(City) 

(Date) 

I certify that during the academic year 



has personally peiformed and recorded in a suitable notebook 

experiments in the chemical laboratory of the School, 

the experiments being not very different from the list prescribed by the College 
Entrance Examination Board, and that the notebook constitutes a true and original 
record of the experiments. 

The time given to the laboratory work has occupied hours and the time given 

to lectures and recitations has occupied hours. 

(Signed) 

Teacher of Chemistry. 

BOTANY. 

(1 unit.) 

The requirement in botany is based on the report of the committee on botany of the science department 
of the National Education Association, modified by a committee of the society for plant morphology and 
physiology (now merged with the Botanical Society of America). 

The following course is designed to include those topics in the leading divisions of 
the subject which are now regarded by most teachers as fundamental. The general 
sequence of topics is that recommended, but this point is not regarded as especially 
important, and the sequence, the methods, and the textbooks are left to the judgment 
of the individual teacher. Where special circumstances, such as exceptional difl&culty 
of -obtaining material, etc., prevent the completion of the entire amount while allowing 
its equivalent in thoroughness, it is recommended that some of the minor topics here 
and there be omitted rather than that the attempt should be made to cover all more 
62400°— 13 11 



162 PRESENT STANDAEDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

superficially. To provide for this possibility the examination papers will always 
include a number of alternative questions. 

Individual laboratory work by the students is essential and should receive at least 
double the amount of time given to recitation. In recording the laboratory work 
stress should be laid upon diagram m a tically accurate drawing and precise expressive 
description. 

"^Tiile the College Entrance Examination Board does not require the submission of 
the laboratory notebook as part of the examination in botany, but expects that the 
notebook will be sent directly to the proper authorities of the college or scientific 
school which the candidate pm^oses entering, it requires the submission of a teacher's 
certificate covering the candidate 's laboratory work. The blank form of the certificate 
required may be obtained from the secretary of the board. 

The full year's coiurse consists of two parts: 

Part I. The General Principles of (A) Anatomy and Morphology, (B) Physi- 
ology, AND (C) Ecology. 

(A) Anatomy and Morphology. 

The Seed. — Four types (dicotyledon without and with endosperm, a monocotyledon 
and a gymnosperm); structiu"e and homologous parts. Food supply; experimental 
determination of its nature and value. Phenomena of germination and growth of 
embryo into a seedling (including bursting from the seed, assumption of position, and 
unfolding of parts). 

The Shoot. — Gross anatomy of a typical shoot, including the relationships of position 
of leaf, stem (and root), the arrangement of leaves and buds on the stem, and deviations 
(through light adjustment, etc.), from symmetry. Buds and the mode of origin of 
new leaf and stem; winter Duds in particular. 

Specialized and metamorphosed shoots (stems and leaves). General structure and 
distribution of the leading tissues of the shoot; annual growth; shedding of bark and 
leaves. 

The Root. — Gross anatomy of a typical root; position and origin of secondary roots; 
hair-zone, cap, and growing point. Specialized and metamorphosed roots. General 
structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the root. 

The Flower. — Structure of a typical flower, especially of ovule and pollen; functions 
of the parts. Comparative morphological study of four or more marked types, with 
the construction of transverse and longitudinal diagrams. 

The Fruit.— Structiu-e of a typical fruit. Comparative morphological study of four 
or more marked types. 

This comparatively morphological study of flowers and fruits may advantageously be postponed to the 
end of Part II, and then taken up in connection with classification of Angiosperms. 

The Cell. — Cytoplasm, Nucleus, Sap-cavity, Wall. 
{B) Physiology. 

Role of water in the plant; absorption (osmosis), path of transfer, transpiration, 
turgidity and its mechanical value, plasmolysis. 

Photosynthesis; dependence of starch formation upon chlorophyll, light, and carbon 
dioxide; evolution of oxygen, observation of starch grains. 

Respiration; necessity for oxygen in growth, evolution of carbon dioxide. 

Digestion; digestion of starch with diastase, and its role in translocation of foods. 

Irritability; geotropism, heliotropism, and hydrotropism. 

Growth; localization in higher plants; amount in elongating sterna; relationships to 
temperature. 

Fertilization; sexual and vegetative reproduction. 



EEQUIKEMENTS BY ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD. 163 

(C) Ecology. 

Modifications (metamorphoses) of parts for special functions. Dissemination. 
Cross-pollination. Light relations of green tissue. 

Special habitats: Mesophytes, Hydrophytes, Halophytes, Xerophytes; Climbers, 
Epiphytes, Parasites (and Saprophytes), Insectivora. 

******* 

In this connection field work is of great importance, and for some topics is indispensable, though much 
may be done also with potted plants in greenhouses, photographs, and museum specimens. It is strongly- 
recommended that some systematic field work be considered as an integral part of the course, coordinate 
in definiteness and value as far as it goes with the laboratory work. The temptations to haziness and guess- 
ing in ecology must be combated. 

Part II. — ^The Natural History op the Plant Groups, and Classification. 

A comprehensive si^mmary of the great natural groups of plants, based upon the 
thorough study of the structure, reproduction, and adaptations to habitat of one or 
two types from each group, supplemented and extended by more rapid study of other 
forms in those groups. Where living material is wanting for the latter, preserved 
material, and even good pictures, may be used, and a' standard textbook should be 
thoroughly read. The general homologies from group to group should be noted, 
though it is not expected that these will be known in detail. 

In general, in this part of the course, much less attention should be given to the 
lower and inconspicuous groups, and progressively more to the higher and conspicuous 
forms. 

Following is a list of recommended types from which, or their equivalents, selec- 
tion may be made: 

(a) Alg^. Pleurococcus, Sphaerella, Spirogyra, Vaucheria, Fucus, Nemalion (or 
Polysiphonia or Coleochsete). 

(6) Fungi. Bacteria, Rhizopus or Mucor, Yeast, Puccinia (or a Powdery Mildew), 
Corn Smut, Mushroom. 

Bacteria and Yeast have obvious disadvantages in such a course, but their great economic importance 
may justify their introduction. 

(c) Lichens. Physcia (or Parmelia or Usnea). 

{d) Bryophytes. In Hepaticse, Radula (or Porella or Marchantia). In Musci, 
Mnium (or Polytrichum or Funaria). 

(e) Pteridophytes. In Filicinese, Aspidium or equivalent, including, of course, 
the prothallus. In Equesetinese, Equisetum. In Lycopodinese, Lycopodium, and 
Selaginella (or Isoetes). 

(/) Gymnosperms. Pinus or equivalent. 

{g) Angiosperms. A monocotyledon and a dicotyledon, to be studied with refer- 
ence to the homologies of their parts with those in the above groups; together with 
representative plants of the leading subdivisions and principal families of Angio- 
sperms. 

******* 

The preparation of an herbarium is neither required nor recommended, except as voluntary work for 
those with a taste for collecting. If made, it should not constitute a simple accumulation of species, but 
should represent some distinct idea of plant associations, or of morphology, or of representation of the 
groups, etc. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

(1 rmit.) 

The requirement in geography is based on the report of the committee on physical geography of the 
science department of the National Education Association. 

The following outline includes only the most essential facts and principles of physi- 
cal geography, which must be studied in the classroom and laboratory. The material 



164 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

is, for the most part, common to the leading textbooks, though it should be recognized 
that no adequate laboratory manual is at present available. The order of presentation 
is not essential; it is recommended, however, that the topics be treated in general in 
the order given. 

Outline. — Recognizing that the field of physical geography in secondary schools 
should include (1) the earth as a globe, (2) the ocean, (3) the atmosphere, and (4) the 
land, the following outline is planned to cover these several large topics, with the 
further recommendation that the time allowance be proportionately increased in 
the order named: 
The Earth as a Globe — 

Shape of earth, how proved, consequences of shape. 
Size: how earth is measured; effects of size. 
Rotation: character of motion ; latitude, longitude, and tipie. 
Revolution: rate, path, direction, and the consequences. 
Magnetism: compass, poles, variation. 
Map projection. 
The Ocean — 

Form, divisions, and general characteristics of the ocean. 
Depth, density, temperature of ocean waters. 
Characteristics of ocean floor. 
Distribution of life in oceans. 

Movement of ocean waters: Waves — cause and effect; currents — causes, proofs of 
causes, important currents, effect of currents; tides — character of motion, cause 
of tides, variation of tides, bores. 
Work of the ocean. 

Cla&ses of shore lines and importance of shore lines. 
The Atmosphere — 

Composition and offices of atmosphere. 
Instruments used in study of atmosphere. 

Temperature — Source and variation of atmospheric temperatures; isothermal 
charts of world, January and July, with special study of isothermals of northern 
and southern hemispheres, of location of heat equator, of cold pole, of crowded 
isotherms, etc. 
Pressure — measurement of pressure; use of pressure in altitude determinations; 
relation to temperature; study of isobars on U. S. weather map; distribution of 
pressure over world in January and July; relations of isobars to isotherms. 
Circulation of atmosphere — winds, classes, directions, causes, effects. 
Moisture — som-ce, forms, measurement, precipitation. 

Storms — paths and characters of storms of United States; daily weather at different 
seasons; relation of storms to general weather conditions; relation of weather 
to climate. 
The Land — 

Several features of land as compared with ocean. 
Distribution of land. 
Map representation of topography. 

Changes in land forms, effects of elevation and depression. 

Plains — kinds of plains; characteristics of different kinds; development of plains; 
coastal plain of eastern United States in parts; alluvial plains, their formation 
and importance; relation of life conditions to different forms of plains. 
Plateaus — young plateaus, dissected plateaus, old plateaus, broken plateaus. 
Mountains — block, folded, domed, and massive mountains. 
Volcanoes — distribution, character at different stages. 



1 



EEQUIREMENTS BY ENTRAl^CE EXAMHSTATION BOAED. 165 

The Land — Continued. 

Rivers — life history of river, work of rivers, topography of valleys at different 
stages, lakes and lake basins; ^e^-ived rivers; drowned valleys; the great drainage 
basins of the United States. 
Glaciers — existing ice sheets, kinds of glaciers, work of glaciers, characteristics 
of glaciated area of northern United States. 
Summary — 

Relation of man, plants, and animals, to climate, land forms, and oceanic areas. 

The outline given can but present the larger topics to be covered, and in a way 

suggest the point of view desired. Each topic should be ti'eated so as to show its 

causal relations to other topics, and, so far as possible, the effects of earth features on 

life conditions should be emphasized. 

The candidate's preparation should include: 

(1) The study of one of the leading secondary textbooks in physical geography, 
that a knowledge may be gained of the essential principles, and of well-selected facts 
illustrating those principles. 

(2) Individual laboratory work, comprising at least 40 exercises selected from a list 
not very different from the one given below. From one-third to one-half of the can- 
didate's classroom work should be devoted to laboratory exercises. In the autumn 
and spring field trips should take the place of laboratory exercises. 

LIST OF POSSIBLE EXERCISES. ^ 

Earth as a Globe — 

Construct a diagram showing inclination of earth's axis and effects of an axis 

at right angles and parallel to plane of orbit. [1] 
Cause of day and night, and extent of sunlight over surface. [1] 
Construct a diagram showing position of earth, moon, and sun at the several phases 

of moon. [1] 
Construct a series of lines to some adopted scale, showing circumference and 

diameter of earth, and distance of several leading large cities from New York. 

[1] 
Determination of latitude, north and south line, and high noon. [1] 
Ocean — 

Study of ocean current maps [1], tide charts [1], types of shore lines [1], positions 

of lighthouses, life-saving stations, and large cities in relation to southern 

Atlantic shore. [1] 
Study of map of world, showing heights of land and depths of sea. [1] 
Explain selected steamer routes across Atlantic and Pacific. [1] 
Atmosphere — 

Determination of altitude of hill by barometer. [1] 
Determination of dew point. [1] 

Comparison of January and July temperatm-e of 40° N. and S. Lat. [2] 
Location and migration of heat equator and cold pole. [2] 
Comparison of temperature over land and water at different seasons. [2] 
Study distribution of wind systems by seasons, and compare with pressure con- 
ditions. [2] 
Make isotherm and isobar maps from furnished date. [2] 
Find average wind directions about a storm center. [1] 
Make complete weather maps from furnished data. [2] 
Study distribution of cloudiness and rainfall about a storm center. [1] 
Predict weather conditions from data furnished. [1] 
Find average rate and direction of motion of storm centers. [1] 
Study condition of "cold waves" and "northeasters." [1] 

1 Numbers in brackets indieate the value that should be given in estimating the total number of 40. 



166 PRESENT STANDARDS OP HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Land — 

Comparison of areas to scale. [1] 

Making cross-sections of contour maps to scale. [4] 

Cross-sections of hachure map, and changing hachure to contour map. [2] 

Writing description of models. [4] 

Writing description of picture and accompanying map. [2] 

Construction of river profile. [1] 

Making drainage map of United States. [1] 

Written description of selected maps illustrating classes of land forms. [4] 

Planning a journey and describing country to be seen. [1] 

Locating illustrations of common land forms on some special contour map. [1] 

Four excursions in autumn, described in detail. [8] 

Four excursions in spring, described in detail. [8] 
The candidate's practical exercises should be distributed about as follows: Mathe- 
matical geography 5, ocean 5, atmosphere 12, land 18. In connection with them 
the candidate should prepare a notebook in which are recorded with dates the steps 
and the results of his laboratory exercises. This book should contain an index of 
subjects and should be a true and original record of the pupil's work. 

While the College Entrance Examination Board does not require the submission 
of the laboratory notebook as part of the examination in geography, but expects 
that the notebook will be sent directly to the proper authorities of the college or 
scientific school which the candidate purposes entering, it requires the submission 
of a teacher's certificate covering the candidate's laboratory work. 

ZOOLOGY. 

(1 unit.) 

The requirement in zoology is in accordance with the report of a committee appointed by the American 
Society of Zoologists. 

The following outline includes the principles of zoology which are indispensable 
to a general survey of the science. It is not intended to indicate order of study of 
the topics — this must be left to the teacher and the textbook. 

1. The general natural history — including general external structure in relation 
to adaptations, life histories, geographical range, relations to other plants and ani- 
mals, and economic relations — of common vertebrates and invertebrates, so far as 
representatives of these groups are obtainable in the locality where the course is given. 

The types suggested are a mammal, bird, lizard, snake, turtle, newt, frog, dogfish 
or shark, bony fish, clam, snail, starfish, earthworm, planarian, hydra, sea-anemone, 
paramcecium. In the case of arthropods, pupils should become familiar with common 
crustaceans, spiders, myriapods, and insects representing at least five orders. 

Actual examination of common animals with reference to the above points should 
be supplemented by reading giving natural-history information. It is not expected 
that there will be time for making extensive notebooks on the natural -history work; 
rather will the work in this line take the form of laboratory demonstrations. So far 
as time permits, drawings and notes should be made. The notebook mentioned 
below should contain at least drawings on the external structure of four animals not 
studied under section 3, preferably two insects, a mollusk, and a second vertebrate. 

2. The classification of animals into phyla and leading classes (except the modern 
subdivisions of the worms) and the great characteristics of these groups. In the 
case of insects and vertebrates the characteristics of the prominent orders. 

The teaching of classification should be by practical work, so as to train the pupil 
to recognize animals and to point out the chief taxonomic characteristics. The 
meaning of species, genera, and larger groups should be developed by constructive 
practical work witli representatives of insect or vertebrate orders. 



KEQUIREMENTS BY ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD. 167 

3. The general plan of external and internal structure, not the anatomical min- 
'Utiae, of one vertebrate (preferably frog or fish) in general comparison with human 

body); an arthropod (preferably a decapod); an annelid (earthworm or Nereis); a 
coelenterate (hydroid, hydra, or sea-anemone); a protozoon (a ciliate, and amoeba 
when possible). In place of any of above types not locally available there may be 
substituted a second vertebrate, an insect, a mollusk, or an echinoderm. Tissues, 
the study of which is recommended as optional, ^ should be examined first with the 
unaided eye, in such a structure as a frog's leg, and then with a microscope demon- 
strate the relation of cells and intercellular substance in epithelium and cartilage; 
and, if possible, in other tissues. The functions of the chief tissues and their posi- 
tions in the body of a vertebrate should be pointed out. 

4. (i) The general physiology of above types, involving the essentials of digestion, 
absorption, circulation, respiration, cell metabolism, secretion, excretion, and nervous 
functions. This should apply comparatively the essentials of elementary work in 
human physiology. Demonstrations and experiments, such as are suggested in 
high-school textbooks on human physiology, should be introduced, or recalled if 
not previously well presented in elementary physiology, in connection with the 
discussion of the chief functions. As far as practicable structure and function should 
be studied together. 

(ii) Comparison of the general life processes in animals and plants (in connection 
with botany if zoology is first studied). 

5. The very general features of asexual reproduction of a protozoon (preferably 
Paramcecium); alternation of generations in hydroids; reproduction and regenera- 
tion of Hydra; the very general external features of embryological development in 
a fish or frog; and (optional) the general cellular nature (not centrosomes and the 
like) of germ cells, fertilization, and cell division in developing eggs should, as far 
as possible, be demonstrated and briefly described . Also, the most interesting features 
of development should be pointed out in the case of other animals studied. 

6. The prominent evidence of relationship, suggesting evolution, within such 
groups as the decapods, the insects, and the vertebrates, should be demonstrated. A 
few facts indicating the struggle for existence, adaptation to environment, variations 
of individuals, and man's selective influence should be pointed out; but the factors of 
evolution and the discussion of its theories should not be attempted. 

7. (Optional.) Some leading facts regarding the epoch-making discoveries of 
biological history and the careers of such eminent naturalists as Darwin, Huxley, 
Pasteur, and Agassiz should be presented. 

The above outline of a course in general zoology should be developed on the basis of 
a course of laboratory study guided by definite directions. This should be supple- 
mented by the careful reading of at least one modem elementary textbook in general 
zoology. At least two-thirds of the time sho;:ld be devoted to the practical studies of 
the laboratory. If good nature studies have not preceded the course in high-school 
zoology, pupils should be encouraged to do supplementary work in the line of natural 
history. A notebook with carefully labeled outline drawings of the chief structures 
studied anatomically (section 3), and the drawings mentioned under natural history 
(section 1), and with notes on demonstrations and in explanation of drawings, with 
dates and an index, should be prepared by the candidate in connection with his prac- 
tical work. 

"^Tiile the College Entrance Examination Board does not require the submission of 
the laboratory notebook, but expects that the notebook will be sent directly to the 
proper authorities of the college or scientific school which the candidate purposes 
entering, it requires the submission of a teacher's certificate covering the candidate's 
laboratory work. 

1 Topics marked "optional" are regarded as desirable for the best high-school zoology, but will not be 
required in examinations. 



168 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

DRAWING. 

(1 unit.) 

The requirement in drawing is based upon the statement of entrance requirements ia this subject as 
contained in the catalogues of colleges and universities represented in the College Entrance Examination 
Board. 

The candidate's preparation should include freehand drawing of simple geometrical 
plane and solid figures and simple pieces of machinery, with a fair knowledge of the 
rules of perspective and light and shade as applied in freehand sketching. The can- 
didate should be able to reproduce from a flat copy with enlargement or reduction 
of size. 

For courses in architecture, the preparation should include, in addition to the above, 
the drawing of simple pieces of architectural ornament (a Greek anthemion, a design of 
iron scrollwork, etc.). 

For courses in engineering, the preparation should include the copying of machinery 
details. 

For courses in general science or in science for teachers, the pi-eparation should 
include the copying of still life and simple plant forms. 

Every candidate must present at the time of and as part of the examination in draw- 
ing a set of freehand drawings executed during a one-year course in a preparatory school 
and within a period of 2 years before the time of application for examination. 

These drawings should be at least 20 in number, and should display the proficiency 
of the student in the following points: 

1. Ability to sketch freehand from dictation with reasonable accuracy and with 
fairly coiTect steady and clean lines any simple geometrical figure or coml)ination of 
figures, straight lines, squares and circles, polygons, spirals, or the like. 

2. Ability to sketch from the object, with reasonable correctness of proportion, 
structure, and form, geometrical models, simple vases, simple details of machinery, or 
common objects, such as ordinary household furniture and utensils. 

3. Ability to sketch from the copy, enlarging or reducing its dimensions, any simple 
object, such as a globe valve, stopcock, or any ordinary historical ornament, suchas an 
acanthus leaf, egg and dart ornament, anthemion, tile pattern, iron scrollwork, or 
the like. 

Correctness of proportion and accuracy in the angles and curves and structiual rela- 
tions of the parts of every figure or object drawn are of the highest importance, and 
great care should be taken in laying out the drawings, in the use of construction lines, 
and in the drawing of general masses and contour before the details are begun. 

A certain proportion of shade drawings from casts may be included ; but they are not 
required, and should not form the majority of the drawings submitted. 

These drawings must be projierly certified by the teacher, and the indorsement 
must, in effect, be as follows: 

I certify that the accompanying drawings were actually executed l:)y 

during the year 19 , while under systematic instruction in 

drawing in school. 



Instructor in Drawing. 

In case the candidate has not attended a systematic course of instruction as detailed 
above, he may submit a corresponding set of freehand drawings, duly certified by his 
instructor, or with his own signed declaration that the drawings are his own work. 



REQUlEEMENTS BY ENTRANCE EXAMINATION BOARD. 169 

MUSIC. 

Therequirement in music is based on the report of a joiatcommittee representing the Eastern Educational 
Musical Conference and the New England Education League. 

(a) MUSICAL APPRECIATION. 

The board will hold a written examination on the first two parts of the following: 

(1) A general knowledge of the principal musical forms — song, classic dance, fugue, 
sonata (all movements), symphony — and of their historical development. 

(2) A general knowledge of the lives and environment of at least 10 composers, 
including Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and 5 of the following: Purcell, 
Handel, Gluck, Haydn, Cherubini, Weber, Rossini, Glinka, Mendelssohn, Schumann, 
Wagner, Verdi. 

(3) Familiarity with certain designated works. The works set for 1911 are: 

Bach: Prelude I and Fugue I from the Well-Tempered Clavichord. Gavotte from 
Sixth Violoncello Suite. 

Handel: Air with Variations ("The Harmonious Blacksmith"). 

Haydn: Largo from String Quartet (op. 74, No. 3). 

Mozart: Overture to "The Magic Flute." Symphony in G Minor (entire). 

Beethoven: Sonate Path6tique (op. 13, entire). Larghetto from Second Symphony. 
Allegro con Brio from Fifth Symphony. 

Weber: Overture to "Der Freischiitz." 

Schubert: Moment Musical in F Minor (op. 94, No. 3). Song, "The Erl-King." 
Song, "Hark, Hark, the Lark." 

Mendelssohn: Scherzo from "Midsummer Night's Dream." "Spinning Song" (op. 
67, No. 4). 

Chopin: Polonaise (op. 40, No. 1). Nocturne (op. 37, No. 2). 

Schumann: " Aufschwung" (op. 12, No. 2). Song, " Im wunderschonen MonatMai." 

Wagner: Overture to "Tannhauser." Siegfried's Funeral March, fi'om "Gotter- 
dammerimg. ' ' 

The College Entrance Examination Board will assign a rating on the written exami- 
nation covering [1] and [2], upon the basis of which the college or university concerned 
will record a ' provisional pass or a failure. ' ' A candidate who receives a ' ' provisional 
pass" must take the examination in [3] at the institution which he or she elects to 
enter. In this latter examination the candidate will be expected to identify charac- 
teristic portions of the works set, when played by the examiner; and to give intelligent 
information concerning the form and character of the works themselves. The test will 
not require ability to perfonn, or to read from printed music. 

(&) HARMONY. 



The examination in harmony will consist only of a written test; there will be no test 
in performance. The candidate should have acquired : 

(1) The ability to harmonize, in 4 vocal parts, simple melodies of not fewer than 8 
measures, in soprano or in bass — these melodies will require a knowledge of triads and 
inversions, of diatonic seventh chords and inversions, in the major and minor modes; 
and of modulation, transient or complete, to nearly-related keys. 

(2) Analytical knowledge of ninth chords, all nonharmonic tones, and altered 
chords (including augmented chords). [Students are encouraged to apply this knowl- 
edge in their harmonization.] 

It is urgently recommended that systematic ear-training (as to interval, melody, and 
chord) be a part of the preparation for this examination. Simple exercises in har- 
monization at the pianoforte are recommended . The student will be expected to have 
a full knowledge of the rudiments of music, scales, intervals, and staff notation, 
including the terms and expression marks in common use. 



170 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

(c) COUNTERPOINT. 
(1 unit.) 

The examination in counterpoint will consist only of a written test; there will be no 
test in performance. The candidate should have had training in pianoforte-playing 
sufficient to enable him to render the two-part inventions of Bach. The work should 
consist principally of written exercises on given or invented themes, as follows: 

Chorals and melodies harmonized, with use of passing and ornamental tones; the 
several orders of counterpoint in 2, 3, and 4 voices, with and without cantus firnvus; 
elementary practice in double counterpoint; imitative counteriDoint in the style of the 
simpler 2-part and 3-part inventions and choral preludes of Bach; general and analyt- 
ical study of contrapuntal compositions of larger scope, including detailed analysis 
(both as to harmonic scheme and as to contrapuntal treatment) of not less than 10 pages 
from at least 4 fugues of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavichord. 

There should be some practice with the C clef in reading and in writing. Familiarity 
with the alto and tenor clefs is especially desirable. 



APPENDIX B. 

DEFINITIONS OF UNIT COURSES OF STUDY AND REQUIREMENTS IN 
CERTAIN SUBJECTS BY THE COMMISSION ON ACCREDITED SCHOOLS 
AND COLLEGES OF THE NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION OF COL- 
LEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

UNIT COURSES IN GENERAL. 

1. A Unit Course of Study in a Secondary School is defined as a course covering an 
academic year that shall include in the aggregate not less than 120 sixty-minute hours 
of classroom work, 2 hours of manual training or laboratory work being equivalent to 
1 hour of classroom work. 

2. A Unit Course of Study in the College is defined as a course covering an academic 
year that shall include in the aggregate not less than 150 sixty-minute hours of class- 
room work, at least 2 hours of laboratory, drawing, shop, or field work being equivalent 
to 1 hour of classroom work. 

3. The graduation requirement of the high school and the entrance requirement of 
the college shall include 15 units as above defined. 

4. All high-school curricula and all requirements for college entrance shall include 
as constants 3 units of English and 2 units of mathematics. 

COLLEGE CREDIT FOR WORK DONE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

1. The commission favors the general principle that colleges should give advanced 
credit for secondary-school work, when sufficient in amount and quality, done in 
addition to the 15 units required for admission . 

2. In the opinion of the commission no advanced college credit should be given for 
less than 1 full year of secondary-school work in any subject, except bo far as half units 
are specified in the definitions of unit courses, or for any study that is not pursued 
later than the second year of the high-school course. 

3. The amount of advance credit to be awarded in any subject should be determined 
by the college which the student enters. 



MATHEMATICS. 

(3 units.) 

A. Three chief aims should be set for instruction in mathematics in the secondary- 
school: 

1. To inspire and facilitate the acquisition of knowledge in an important field of 
human thought; mathematics is necessary to the comprehension and mastery of nature. 

2. To develop the ability to apply this knowledge to practical and theoretical 
investigations. 

3. To develop and strengthen the ability to perceive exact relations and to make 
inferences correctly; the teacher's constant aim should be to train the pupil to tMnk 
and to formulate clearly the results of his thinking. 

B. We may reasonably expect of students completing a high-school course and 
presenting themselves for admission to college: 

1. A fair degree of accuracy and rapidity in calculations, and a fair knowledge of the 
applications of numbers to the solution of the common problems of life. 

171 



172 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

2. A fair degree of skill in making algebraic transformations. 

3. The ability to use the equation as an instrument in the solution of problems. 

4. The ability to interpret algebraic results. 

5. A fair comprehension of what constitutes a proof in mathematics. 

6. A good knowledge of the facts of elementary algebra and plane and solid geometry. 

C. We recognize the fact that the students of the last high-school year, because of 
their greater maturity, have much more ability to grasp the abstract thinking of mathe- 
matics than do students of the first year. The material offered in the courses and the 
methods of instruction should be determined with this in view. At first the simpler 
and more concrete ideas of the subject should be dealt with. In later stages, more 
complicated mechanical work and formal theory should be introduced gradually. 

D. The units, by title, shall be: (1) Algebra, first course, 1 unit: (2) plane geom- 
etry, 1 unit; (3a) algebra, 2 unit; (3b) solid geometry; or (4) plane trigonometry, 
I unit. 

******* 

Under any arrangement arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry should be 
regarded and treated as different phases of one and the same great subject — mathemat- 
ics. The geometrical, the arithmetical, algebraic, and physical phases of mathe- 
matics should be presented as far as possible from the beginning to the end of the 
secondary course. Much can be done in this direction by employing geometrical 
methods in algebra and by using algebraic processes in geometry. Numerous exam- 
ples taken from physics and problems illustrated graphically and taken from any 
soiu-ce whatever may be advantageously employed. 

E. The algebra required for entrance to college should include the following topics 
(no significance to be attached to the order given here): 

1. Tlie fundamental laws of algebra. 

2. The general view of algebraic number. 

3. The four fundamental operations as applied to integral, fractional, and irrational 
expressions. 

4. Factoring. 

5. Binomial theorem for positive integral exponents. 

6. Solution of equations in 1 variable, including simple quadratic, fractional, and 
irrational equations. 

7. Solution of systems of equation in 2 variables, including linear system, linear- 
quadratic system, and a few of the quadratic systems that occur more frequently in 
practice. 

8. Ratio and proportion. 

9. The statement and solution of problems. 

It is recommended that this unit and a half be divided into two portions, an ele- 
mentary course: Algebra 1, to be given in the first year of high school, and a more 
advanced course to be given after the course in plane geometry in the third or fourth 
year. 

******* 

In plane geometry it is suggested that a clearer conception of geometrical reasoning 
and a firmer grasp upon geometrical facts can be acquired by a thorough consideration 
of a small number of theorems than by a hurried glance at a larger number. It is 
therefore recommended that the more important theorems be emphasized and that 
the less important be omitted or passed over without proof. It is suggested that 
teachers be free to assume the truth of some of the most evident theorems at first. 
Proof may be given later if desired. The original demonstration of theorems is of the 
utmost importance. The use of exercises involving algebraic and numerical applica- 
tions is to be encouraged. The habit of giving accurate definitions, the perception 
of what constitutes a demonstration of truth, confidence in one's own power of 
correct reasoning and the ability to discover geometrical relations are of more impor- 



UNIT COURSES OF STUDY. 173 

tance than the ability to recall the demonstration of a large number of theorems. 
It would be well to omit the theory of limits and incommensurables from this coxuse. 

Solid geometry, 3b, should comprise the usual topics given in texts. Here, too, 
there should be a centering of attention upon the more important theorems. More 
emphasis should be placed on mensuration. 

It may be desirable in some schools to rearrange the material of courses 2 and 3b 
so that course 2 should include the elements of both plane and solid geometry, leaving 
to course 3b the more difficult phases of the subject. 

Plane trigonometry, 4, should include the definitions and relations of the six 
trigonometrical functions as ratios, the theory of logarithms and use of tables, the proof 
of important formulae and considerable practice in trigonometric transformations; 
the solution of right and oblique triangles. 

HISTORY. 

(4- units.) 

1. Ancient history, with special reference to Greek and Roman history, and includ- 
ing also a short introductory study of the more ancient nations and the chief events of 
the early Middle Ages, down to the death of Charlemagne (814). 

2. Mediseval and modem European history, from the death of Charlemagne to the 
present time. 

3. English history. 

4. American history, or American history and civil government. 

The periods that are here indicated as constituting the four units were recommended 
by the committee of seven of the American Historical Association in their report to 
the association in 1899. The full report is published imder the title "The Study of 
History in Schools." It contains suggestions as to various methods of treating these 
periods, and gives further information likely to be of service to the teacher. 

******* 

No definite statement need be made concerning the mode of teaching or the appara- 
tus that should be used. But it may be said that the mere learning of a text will not 
give the preparation that the colleges desire. Happily the time is gone when teachers 
are inclined to confine their classes to the memorizing of a single text. Some colleges 
in their entrance examination expect the candidate to present notebooks showing the 
amount and character of the work done in the schools. It is desirable that notebooks 
or cards should be kept as a record of the work done. They may contain copious 
extracts from primary and secondary authorities, references to important material, 
sketch maps made by the pupils as illustrations of their studies, and informal notes 
on reading that has been done in connection with the course. 

******* 

The teacher of history in the secondary school should have completed a four-year 
college course or the equivalent. He should have completed courses in history 
aggregating at least 12 hours for one year, including one "intensive" or "research" 
course. In the selection of these courses at least 3 fields of history represented in the 
secondary school units should be chosen. It is also strongly recommended that the 
teacher should have pm'sued elementary courses in economics and political science. 

The school library or an accessible public library should be equipped with at least 
the following nimabers of well-selected books on the different units: Ancient history, 
25 volimies; Mediaeval and modem history, each 25 volumes; English history, 50 
volumes, and United States history, 75 volumes. 

In addition to a good textbook, the pupil should have read in connection with each 
unit of history as a minimum the following amounts of carefully selected collateral 
material, of which at least one-fourth should be source material: Ancient history, 200 
pages; mediaeval and modem European history, each 150 pages; English history, 300 



174 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

pages; American history, 350 pages. (It is understood that civics is additional.) 
Especial care should be exercised by the teacher in testing the reports on outside 
reading to see that the best results are obtained. 

PHYSICS. 

(1 unit.) 

1. The unit in physics consists of at least 180 periods of 45 minutes each (equal to 
120 hours) of assigned work. Two periods of laboratory work count as one of assigned 
work. 

2. The work consists of 3 closely related parts, namely, class work, lecture-demon- 
stration work, and laboratory work. At least one-fourth of the time shall be devoted 
to laboratory work. 

3. It is very essential that double periods be arranged for the laboratory work. 

4. The class work includes-the study of at least one standard text. 

5. In the laboratory the student shall perform at least 30 individual experiments, 
and shall keep a careful notebook record of them. At least 20 of these should involve 
numerical work and the determination of such quantitative relations as may be ex- 
pressed in whole numbers. Such quantitative work should aim to foster the habit 
of thinking quantitatively, but should not attempt to verify laws with minute accu- 
racy nor to determine known physical constants with elaborate apparatus. The list 
of topics covered by these quantitative experiments should not differ widely from the 
list of starred topics in the syllabus. 

6. The class work should aim to build up in the student's mind clear concepts of 
physical terms and quantities, and an intuitive appreciation of the general principles 
which make up the syllabus. He must be trained in the use of those principles in the 
solution of simple, practical, concrete numerical problems. 

7. Examinations will be framed to test the student's understanding of and ability 
to use the general principles in the required syllabus, as indicated in 6. 

8. The teacher is not expected to follow the order of topics in the syllabus imless 
he wishes to do so. 

This list of required topics is not intended to include all the material for the year's 
work. 1 1 is purposely made short in order that each teacher may be free to supplement 
it in a way that fits his individual environment. It does include those topics which 
all agree are essential to a first course in physics and which are capable of comprehen- 
sion at least to the extent specified in number 6 of the definition of the unit by boys 
and girls of high-school age. 

******* 

CHEMISTRY. 

(1 unit.) 

Chemistry is an art as well as a science. Acquaintance with its elements includes 
ability to do certain things intelligently as well as remembrance of the bare results 
of chemical changes. An organized account of the latter is only a sort of desiccated 
residuum if it is not illuminated by the experience acquired along with skill in the 
former. The books usually — and necessarily — give prominence to the second (the 
systematic aspect), leaving instruction in the art to the teacher. A requirement in 
chemistry, on the other hand, must emphasize the art, for it is universal. It will 
lay less stress on any particular list of substances, reactions, or topics, in view of the 
extent of the available material, the briefness of the school course, and the consequent 
differences between equally good individual selections. The art can not, of course, 
be acquired without a fair systematic knowledge, while a semblance of the systematic 
knowledge may be acquired without the art. The art is therefore more worthy of 
emphasis. 



UNIT COUESES OF STUDY. 175 

It will be noted that the art of chemistry consists in the practical knowledge of the 
physical properties of all kinds of matter and the utilization of this knowledge in 
arranging intelligently the conditions before chemical change, in noting all physical 
indications during experiment and distinguishing the significant ones, and in inter- 
preting the result of this observation. It thus deals almost exclusively with physical 
conceptions and facts. It demands, therefore, a careful training in physical facts, 
physical observation, and physical inference. Conventionalized chemical work 
which can progress without skUl in this art (for example, reiterated observation of 
precipitations) is valueless. 

Disregarding questions of order, and simply classifying the essential principles of 
instruction, the pupil should be taught: 

1. Technique of experimentation. Properties of common apparatus in respect to 
etructiu-e and material. For example, how to make an apparatus air tight and why. 
Object of such operations as washing and drying gases and how the object is attained. 

Physical properties which may be used for recognition of each substance and for 
explanation of all observations. 

Judicious use of proportions and materials. Influence of conditions (temperature, 
homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture, etc.) on chemical change. 

2. Physical phenomena, their recognition, description, and physical interpretation. 

3. The more strictly chemical application of the results. For example, inference in 
regard to the nature of the chemical change which must have led to the results 
observed. Making of the chemical equation from adequate data. 

******* 

A knowledge of important chemical industries and ability to work simple problems 
will be expected. 

BOTANY. 

(1 unit.) 

It has been the intent of the committee to prepare a statement that is sufficiently 
elastic to give adequate recognition to all good courses in high-school botany, rather 
than to present a set line of procedure that must be followed by all. The work that 
is done should meet the needs of the pupils regardless of whether any work is to be 
done in any higher institution. Emphasis is placed upon the quality and quantity 
of the work done, and upon the preparation of the teacher, rather than upon the par- 
ticular things that are to be done. 

******* 

The committee wishes to express its appreciation of the work done by the com- 
mittee on education of the Botanical Society of America. This committee, previously 
working as the committee of the society of plant morphology and physiology of the 
College Entrance Examination Board, and later of the Botanical Society of America, 
has published 4 reports, the latest in the School Review for November, 1908. These 
reports have been most potent in giving purpose and organization to the teaching of 
botany in secondary schools. 

******* 

I. The purpose and content of the course and the time that should be given to it. 

1. The ends to be sought through an elementary study of plant life include training 
in the scientific method of thinking, particularly as relates to plant life, information 
and a more intelligent and a more active interest in natural phenomena in general, 
an elementary knowledge of fundamentals of plant life, and a better understanding 
of those features and activities of plants that relate to everyday affairs. 

2. In determining the content, order, and treatment of topics in any individual 
course, the needs and opportunities of the teacher and class should be dominant. 
To this end this statement includes the general features of the course, the teacher 
being left at liberty to adopt such details as best meet the needs of any particulax 



176 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

class of pupils. The quality and quantity of work done by the pupil, evidence of 
his ability to do accurate and reliable work, and adequate preparation by the teacher, 
rather than the specific content of the course, are emphasized. 

3. There is presented a general plan of the "synthetic course," which the majority 
of the committee believes to be the best type, though it is not intended to restrict 
teachers to this type of course. This course embodies the elements of morphology of 
the great groups including the "lower forms" as well as the seed plants; of physiology, 
with experiments upon plant activities; of ecology, with emphasis upon class and 
individual field trips, including some acquaintance with local plants; of the relation 
of plants to their habitat and to men; of food and timber supply, parasitism, disease, 
decay, soil replenishment, etc. It is recommended, however, that plants be studied 
in an elementary way leading into any or all of the above aspects, rather than that the 
differentiated divisions of the subject be taken up at one time. 

An elementary consideration of the relations of plants to men as shown in plant 
and animal diseases, hygiene, agriculture, horticulture, erosion, decay, foods, fibers, 
etc., should be presented as an organic part of the study of botany. The inclusion 
of these practical matters as an organic part of the course, rather than as a number of 
sections upon the applied aspects of plants, gives appreciable meaning and fuller 
significance to the study. An adequate consideration of such separate applied 
sciences as agriculture, forestry, bacteriology, and horticulture should follow the 
general study of plants and animals. 

4. The time requirement of the course should be the equivalent of 180 periods of 
at least 40 minutes each; there should be two doubled periods per week for laboratory 
or field work, each of these doubled periods counting as one period in making up the 
total 180 periods. 

II. Suggested plan of the course. This is a plan for a synthetic course. It sug- 
gests more material than any one year's work can present. Some of the topics will 
receive more emphasis at the hands of teachers who prefer to treat briefly or omit 
other topics, the ones selected for full or brief treatment A^arying with different teachers. 
In order of treatment consideration may first be made of the structure and function of 
seed plants, or of the characteristics of the great groups of plants. 

III. The qualifications of the teacher of botany. 

It is believed that the teacher of botany in the high school should have a minimum 
preparation in botany equivalent to 2 years of college work. This work should include 
the general morphology of the lower and higher groups, elementary plant physiology 
and ecology; zoology, physiography, and a course in general bacteriology are desir- 
able. The teacher should also have some knowledge of the purpose of botany in 
high-school education and of current and desirable practice in teaching botany. 

Since the teacher of botany usually teaches other sciences each demanding some- 
what similar quantity of preparation, obviously to maintain this standard more general 
and more extensive preparation needs to be urged. This standard of preparation 
is deemed highly desirable in order to give botany its proper place in secondary 
education, but it may not always be practicable. It is the standard that should be 
met by those»who are now preparing to teach the subject. 

ZOOLOGY. 

(1 unit.) 

A high-school course in zoology should have for its objects: (1) To acquaint the 
student with the common animals of his own neighborhood, with the various envi- 
ronments of these animals, with the adaptations which the animals show to their 
environment, and with their habits and economic importance. (2) To afford train- 
ing in critical methods of making and recording observations both by drawing and by 



UNIT COUKSES OF STUDY. 177 

writing, both in the laboratory and in the field. (3) To teach enough of the inter- 
pretation of the observed facts that the student may understand the current methods 
of interpretation from the morphological, physiological, and ecological standpoints. 
In other words, with the study of the structures there should go an interpretation of 
their use (physiology, ecology) and of their past history (evolution). An elementary 
training in both experimental and comparative methods should be sought, and the 
pecuhar value of such training as a means of intellectual development should not be 
overlooked. Ability on the part of the student to observe and think independently 
is especially desired. 

For a course extending through the year with 4 periods per week, it is recommended 
that the laboratory and field work consist of the study of at least 10 type forms as 
indicated in the following list: 

An insect, the crayfish, an earthworm, leech, or fresh- water oligochaete, an Amoeba 
or other protozoan, hydra or a hydroid, a mussel or snail, a fi^h, a frog or turtle, a 
bird, a mammal. 

The animal to be taken as the type under each head may be selected by the teacher 
and will vary with the locality. It will usually be most convenient to begin with 
insects in the fall and to take up birds before the spring migration, and mammals 
later in the spring or in the winter. The order in which the other forms are studied 
may vary according to convenience. In the above list the crayfish and the earth- 
worm have been placed after the insect in order to bring like forms together. Those 
who find difficulty in beginning with a form as small as the grasshopper may prefer 
to spend the first 2 weeks on the crayfish, but any considerable delay in taking up 
insects in the fall should be avoided. The other forms are arranged in the usually 
accepted logical order which is preferred by most teachers. If, for practical reasons, 
it is deemed best to depart from this order, it will be found that the idea of evolution 
may be taught with quite as much force from material within the individual groups 
as by an adherence to the so-called logical order of the groups themselves. 

If time permits, the teacher may profitably add to the list of types an echinoderm 
and a sponge, to each of which one or two class and laboratory periods may be devoted. 
The student's conception of the animal kingdom is thus greatly broadened. 

A suitable laboratory and field equipment is assumed. Its precise character will 
vary with circumstances. In general the better the equipment the better the work 
that may be done. "While it is true that a course in zoology may be given without 
the use of the compound microscope, in the opinion of your committee a much better 
course may be given by its moderate use. 

As far as possible the work on each type should be begun by collecting by the 
students, chiefly of the type form but incidentally of as many as possible of other 
forms belonging to the same group. Some of the animals collected should be kept 
alive, and the subsequent study should, where practicable, be made on li\-ing animals. 
The work on each type should include structure, behavior and habits, study of related 
forms, and ecology. 

The plan recommended for laboratory and field work may be best made clear by 
a specific illustration. Thus the work on insects may be begun with the grasshopper, 
with a collecting trip in which each individual student is required to bring into the 
laboratory as many kinds of grasshoppers as he can obtain, and together with these 
a certain number of insects belonging to other groups. Each student should then 
preserve most of the insects in his collection and after sorting them put them aside 
for future use. In this connection instruction may be given in methods of pinning 
and preserving insects and encouragement may be given the pupil to make his own 
collection. Many of the grasshoppers collected should be kept alive and their study 
now be undertaken. In this study function and structure should as far as possible 
be considered in connection with one another. Thus the student may observe the 
62400°— 13 12 



178 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

ways of walking, hopping, and flying, and in connection with these may study on 
preserved material the structure of the legs and wings. At the same time he may 
be instructed in the classroom and by the aid of models, preparations, and diagrams 
concerning muscles and the movements produced by them. Similarly he may 
study the use of the mouth parts in feeding and may then observe the structure of 
the mouth parts in greater detail. From this he may proceed to a study of the 
structure of the digestive organs either from his own dissections or from preparations 
and charts. The teacher may then give elementary instruction concerning the 
process of digestion. Again, observations may be made on the breathing movements 
to be followed by an anatomical study of the spiracles and tracheae and an exposi- 
tion of the nature of respiration. Thus in all cases, so far as practicable, close cor- 
relation should be made between the work on the function and that on the structure 
of the various parts of the body. 

The class should next make a comparative study of the different grasshoppers 
collected so as to be able to distinguish the different species in a second field excur- 
sion. When a good conception has been gained of the general structure of the body 
and of the chief functions of its part, and when a sight recognition of the local species 
of grasshoppers is assured, attention may be directed to the life of grasshoppers in 
the field and to the adaptations shown by the various species to their conditions of 
existence (ecology). 

"WTien the field work on the grasshopper has been completed, the class should take 
up the insects on the first field excursion and should become familiar with the principal 
groups of insects. At this point attention may be directed to the economic value of 
certain species. Here, again, opportunity will be afforded to stimulate individual 
work and the making of collections. 

The same plan of work may be followed in considerable detail with the moUusca. 
In the case of other groups the field work may need to be considerably modified. 
Thus birds and mammals may not be collected, but both may be studied in the field. 
Protozoa and hydra may be collected, but are not, of course, suitable for field study. 
In the case of each type the plan outlined should be followed in so far as the nature 
of the material permits. It is believed that in the laboratory the plan is feasible in 
nearly every case. 

The importance of proper field and laboratory notes and drawings should be empha- 
sized. Notes, both in field and laboratory, should be made while the work is in progress, 
not afterward. They should be criticized by the teacher with reference to their perti- 
nence and completeness and should be permanently preserved. Such notes may be 
made the basis of more careful reports, which should be criticized with a reference to 
the arrangement of their contents, the character of their conclusions, and their English. 
It is suggested that teachers of English will often be found willing to cooperate in the 
correction of such reports. Drawing is of no less importance than note taking. Draw- 
ings should be made chiefly in the laboratory and always from the specimen. It 
should be the object of the teacher to see that the drawings are accurate and that their 
details have meaning. Meaningless or ambiguous lines or masses of shade have no 
more place in a scientific drawing than meaningless words in a sentence. 

Attention should also be called to the importance of local school museums. These 
should contain primarily representatives of the local fauna attractively displayed. 
Students may be referred to specimens in such a museum as they are referred to books 
and may use the museum as they would a library . The Michigan Academy of Sciences 
maintains a bureau the purpose of which is to secure for teachers and others the identi- 
fication of specimens collected by them and their exchange for other specimens. Infor- 
mation concerning the bureau may be had" from the secretary of the academy, Mr. 
George Shafer, Agricultural College, Michigan. 



UNIT COURSES OF STUDY. 179 

The following recommendations are also made: 

1. That the course be put in the second high-school year, rather than in the first, 
and that it be preceded by a course in physiography. 

2. Each week's work should consist of 2 class exercises and at least 2 laboratory 
exercises. Each laboratory exercise should consist of at least 2 school periods, and 
these should, if possible, be the last 2 periods of the afternoon. 

COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS. 

(7 units.) 
a. BUSINESS ARITHMETIC (J UNIt). 

The object is first of all absolute accuracy, and secondly speed, in ordinary business 
computations. To secure these essentials, not less than half of each recitation should 
be devoted to mental drill on simple exercises. For the same reason, no credit what- 
ever should be allowed on work involving any error in computation; and a rigid time 
limit should be set for all written work. 

******* 

Textbook, supplemented by numerous live exercises from current sources, such as 
stores, trade papers, etc. The methods should be planned so as to arouse and sustain 
interest. "The class work must touch life and breathe the spirit of business." 

b. ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING (l UNIT). 

The technical business subjects, especially bookkeeping and stenography, are voca- 
tional in purpose and must therefore be taught with a view to practical mastery. 
This fact should suggest and control the method. For example, no credit whatever 
should be allowed unless the work is done neatly, accurately, and at a satisfactory rate 
of speed. And there should be a combination of class and individual methods of 
instruction to secure maximum results. In order to establish sound habits, it is also 
well to provide double periods for elementary bookkeeping, and require all work to 
be done in the classroom under the eye of the instructor. 

The first requisite is a good, clear, business handwriting. Unless pupils have it, 
which they rarely do, they should be required to do a prescribed amount of practice 
writing under the supervision of the instructor. 

Definitions of double-entry terms, with rules for debit and credit, kinds and uses of 
books. Conduct of a set, including the journal, cash-book, sales-book ledger, check 
book, bank pass book, and trial-balance book; closing of books. Siagle-entry set; 
changing from single to double entry. 

Textbook, with exercises so arranged that no two pupils will do exactly the same 
work. 

C. ADVANCED BOOKKEEPING AND BUSINESS USAGE (l UNIT). 

Thorough drill on the preparation and interpretation of standard business forms, 
such as bills, receipts, checks, notes, time and sight drafts, acceptances, indorse- 
ments, invoices, accounts sales, deposit tickets, warehouse receipts, express receipts, 
bills of lading, statements of account, balance sheets, etc. 

Explanation of business symbols and abbreviations. 

Bill book, invoice book, special books, loose-leaf and voucher systems of book- 



Each student is to carry on a business of his own, manufacturing, banking, whole- 
sale, retail, jobbing or commission; at first as an individual, then as a partnership, 
finally as a corporation, thus involving the use of several forms of accounts. 

Credit on this course should mean that the school is ready to vouch for the student 
as one thoroughly versed in the principles and practice of bookkeeping, who lacks 
only actual business experience to become a competent bookkeeper. 



180 PKESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

d. BUSINESS LAW (^ UNIT). 

The object of this study is not to make "every man his own lawyer," but rather to 
enable him to keep out of legal complications. Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 

To this end it is necessary to study the legal principles governing business rela- 
tions, especially contracts, their nature, essentials, and effects; further, sales, interest 
and usury, bills and notes, agency, partnership, corporations, real property and mort- 
gages, liens, attachments, surety and guarantyship, bailments, common carrier, 
banking, fire insurance, landlord and tenant. 

Textbook, supplemented by some study of cases (by way of illustration), discussions 
and practice in drawing legal papers, such as a contract, note, bill of exchange, bill 
of sale, bill of lading, power of attorney, deed, mortgage, lease, notice of protest, etc. 

e. STENOGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING (2 UNITS). 

This work is expected to occupy not less than 2 periods daily for 2 years. No credit 
should be given for either shorthand or typewriting if taken alone. 

The "touch" methoid is strongly recommended in typewriting. 

The object is first, accuracy, and second, speed in taking dictation and transcribing 
notes. Equally essential are correct spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and para- 
graphing. 

No credit should be given unless the following speed is attained: At end of first 
year, 75 words per minute in dictation and 25 words per minute on the machine; at 
end of second year, 500 words in 5 minutes in dictation, and 35 words per minute in the 
transcription of notes. 

Thorough training should also be given in care of the machine and in methods of 
copying, manifolding, and filing papers. 

/. BUSINESS SPELLING AND CORRESPONDENCE (^ UNIt). 

Preliminary review of 500 common business words. Thorough drill on business 
correspondence, including (1) Form of business letters, beginnings and endings, etc.; 

(2) choice of words and structure of sentences with reference to clearness and brevity ; 

(3) capitalization, punctuation, and paragraphing; (4) writing and answering telegrams 
and advertisements. 

If the pupil does not write a clear and neat business hand, he should be required 
to make good his deficiency, or no credit should be granted for the course. 

Textbook, supplemented by letters relating to the most prominent industriee of 
the locality. 

g. HISTORY OF COMMERCE (^ UNIt). 

Knowledge of the past is indispensable to an understanding of the present. The 
history of commerce thus forms the natural introduction to the study of present 
economic conditions. It should, however, follow the usual course in ancient, medieval, 
and modern history. 

The principal commodities, centers, and routes of commerce in successive ages; 
relation to stage of economic development, division of labor, means of transportation 
and communication; ma-kets and faks, their functions in commerce; special atten- 
tion to England and the United States; and to the growth of modern colonial empires. 

Textbook, supplemented by map work and assigned readings . 

h. ECONOMIC HISTORY OP ENGLAND (| UNIT). 

A study of English history, with special reference to the causes and effects of her 
economic development. It should be based on some of the smaller economic histories, 
such as Cheyney, Price, or Cunningham and McArthur. 

This course, where given, will naturally follow the courses in general European 
history, and may take the place of the usual political English history. 



UNIT COURSES OF STUDY. 181 

*. ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (i UNIT). 

A study of American history with special attention to the economic factor. It 
should be based on some textbook such as Wright, Coman, or Bogart, supplemented by 
collateral readings, especially in books such as Semple and Brigham on geographic 
influences. 

This course will naturally follow the one on English history and may take the 
place of the usual political American history. 

j. MATERIALS OP COMMERCE (J UNIT). 

A study of the most important foodstuffs and raw materials which enter exten- 
sively into commerce, with special reference to their source, mode of preparation, 
and principal uses. 

A course supplementary to commercial geography. Textbook, study of specimens 
and pictures, collateral reading, visits of inspection. The introduction of this sub- 
ject is not recommended unless samples can be provided of at least two dozen of the 
chief commercial staples in various stages of preparation. 

k. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY (i TJNIT). 

As the history of commerce is concerned with the past of commerce, so commercial 
geography describes and seeks to explain the geographic distribution of industries 
and the resulting course of commerce to-day. It is "a comparative study of the na- 
tions of the world, their commercial prominence, and their contest for the trade of the 
world." 

The introductory work should cover: (1) The effect of surface, soil, climate, etc.; 
that is, the physical factor in commerce; (2) the influence of race, religion, education, 
commercial policies, etc.; that is, the human factor in commerce; (3) the effect of 
economic forces on production and commerce; (4) means of transportation and com- 
munication. 

Following this should come a detailed study of the United States by sections and 
then as a whole, with reference to physical features and climate, natural resources, 
population, leading industries, transportation facilities, and commerce, especially 
foreign commerce; then a study of the outlying possessions of the United States; and 
finally, a survey of the other important commercial countries from the same viewpoint. 

Textbook, supplemented by map work and assigned readings. For purposes of 
illustration, samples of commercial staples, lantern slides, stereopticon pictures, etc., 
should be freely employed; and whenever possible visits of inspection should be 
made and informal lectures secured by experts in various industries. Should be 
preceded by physical geography in case both physical and commercial geography 
are taken. 

I. ELEMENTARY ECONOMICS (i UNIT). 

The study of economics is indispensable if the business man is to understand the 
process in which he has a part, and the tendencies which are at work in the business 
world of to-day. 

In the high school it is necessary to avoid two extremes: The one, abstract theory; 
the other, controversial questions. While not omitting theory, emphasis should 
therefore be pilaced on historical and descriptive matter. 

Textbook, with collateral readings, especially on the economic history of England 
and the United States. In the selection of texts it is well to avoid large and diflicult 
books intended for college classes. 



182 PRESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

MANUAL TRAINING. 

(12 units.) 

Manual training comprises a systematic study of the manual arts, embracing (1) 
the mechanic arts (shopwork, drawing); (2) household arts (sewing, cooking); (3) 
freehand drawing and applied arts. 

The mimimum time given per year in order to count as a unit should not be less 
than the equivalent of 240 hours of 60 minutes. No superior limit is given, but addi- 
tional hours should not receive additional credit. 

a. SHOPWORK (4 units). 

Every exercise which is involved in what follows should be planned and executed 
to illustrate an important mechanical principle or process, or a combination of such 
principles and processes. 

The exposition of a tool and the demonstration of a process should be before the 
entire section of pupils conveniently seated so as to see all that the teacher does and 
hear all that he says. 

The shop period of first-year boys ought not to exceed 100 minutes in length; but 
third and fourth year pupils can profitably have longer but less frequent shop periods. 
However, those periods should never exceed 180 minutes. 

Pupils should never be left to find out for themselves the proper ways of using a 
tool. The correct ways should be clearly and fully shown and explained. The use 
of a wrong tool, and the adoption of an illogical or unscientific procedure should at 
once be checked, and the error should be plainly pointed out. 

b. BENCH WORK (1 UNIT). 

(a) Fundamental tool processes: Measuring, squaring, gauging, sawing, boring, 
chiseling; rules for planing. (6) Constructions involving groove joints and halving; 
laying out and cutting joints; use of nails, screws, and glue; carving and finishing. 

(c) Making a glue joint; planing joints, gluing, clamping, surfacing, sandpapering. 

(d) Construction by means of mortise-and-tenon joint; laying out duplicate parts, cut- 
ting mortise, sawing tenon, gluing and clamping, scraping, finishing, (e) Construc- 
tion involving the miter joint; planing parallel edges and sides in the construction 
of a miter box; rabbeting, laying out and cutting a brace. (/) Dovetailing: Laying 
out and cutting dovetails, planing corners, inlaying, (g) Construction involving the 
use of the panel: Plowing, fitting, gluing, clamping, putting on hinges, finishing. 

c. Wood-turning and elementary metal-working (1-unit). 

I. Wood turning. Use of different kinds of wood. Care of lathe, (a) Turning 
spindle, cylinder, taper, convex ciu-ve, concave curve, compound curve; turning to 
given dimensions, finishing and polishing in the lathe. (6) Faceplate turning, (c) 
Chuck turning; built-up stock, fitting. 

II. Metal working. Working in a variety of metals, including cast-iron, steel, 
brass, tin, zinc, and copper, (a) Chipping and filing; chipping with cold chisel and 
hammer; filing, testing, tool dressing. (6) Making small tools. Drilling, filing, 
fitting, riveting, finishing, (c) Construction in sheet metal; pattern cutting, bending, 
folding, wiring, soldering, (d) Copper work: sawing, beating, hard soldering, re- 
pouss^, annealing, coloring with heat and chemicals, etching, (e) Turning: Hand-tool 
turning, filing in lathe, polishing in lathe, thread cutting with tap and die, hardening, 
tempering, annealing. (/) Spinning: cutting templet, turning form in wood to fit 
templet, spinning zinc or Britannia metal and copper, polishing, lacquering. 



UNIT COUESES OF STUDY. 183 

d. Pattern making, molding and forging (1 unit). 

The theory and use of patterns, how built, how divided and why; pattern-making, 
bench-molding of simple and complex patterns; theory and use of cores, construction 
of cores and core-prints; casting with lead and alloys. 

Construction and management of the forge — fundamental processes; drawing, up- 
setting, bending, punching, splitting, welding, hardening; shaping steel under the 
hanmaer; tempering of different grades; the construction of chains, hooks, and forge 
tools, and wrought-iron articles from original or selected designs; finally the manu- 
facture of a set of standard steel lathe tools. The design and actual construction of a 
piece of ornamental and useful wrought-iron or steel work. 

e. Bench and machine metal fitting {1 unit). 

Theory of metal-tmning, centering; forms of cutting tools and tool-grinding; turn- 
ing cast-iron, wrought iron, steel, and brass; use of oil, relation of speed to heat de- 
veloped; use of taps and dies; screw cutting, chuckwork, mandril and faceplate 
work; drilling, slotting, planing, gear cutting, and special work on the milling ma- 
chine. Having mastered the elements, each student should combine moie or less of 
such elements in a construction, made in accordance with original or selected 
drawings. 

/. Drawing {2 units). 

In all pencil drawing with instruments, great care should be taken to make sharp 
lines with accurate intersections. Do not delay precision till ink is used. 

I. (a) Straight lines; use of T-square, triangles, pencil, ruling pen, dividers, and 
scale. Conventional lines. Free-hand working sketches. (6) Circles. Use of com- 
passes, center lines, cross hatching, (c) Tangents. Location of centers and points of 
tangency. {d) Planes of projection; elementary principles of projection; revolution 
of the planes of projection. Projections of simple geometric figures, (e) Revolution 
of objects. "Views" of objects in simple and inclined positions. (/) Developments: 
prism, cylinder, pyramid, cone, {g) Intersections. Axes in the same plane, axes in 
different planes. (A) Isometric and cabinet drawing, (i) Freehand and mechanical 
lettering; placing, form, slant, spacing, stroke, {j) Working drawings; furniture. 
{Ic) Working drawings; machine parts. 

II. (a) Mechanical perspective. (6) Freehand drawing in perspective, (c) Con- 
struction of conic sections and helix, {d) Line shading, (e) Wash drawing. (/) De- 
signing for metal work. (</) Either machine or architectural drawing. 

Household arts and science (4 units). 

Plain sewing (1 unit). Every exercise in sewing should illustrate an important 
principle or process, or a simple combination of such principles and processes. Hand 
sewing and sewing machine work must be equally insisted upon. 

(a) The various stitches and their special uses. 

(b) Hand sewing, fundamental processes. 

(c) The use and care of sewing machines and their attachments. 

(d) The nature and special uses of cotton, linen, and woolen goods. 

(e) The use of patterns; cutting out. 

(/) Taking measurements; making of simple garments. 

2. Sewing and millinery (1 unit). 

(a) Making of shirt waists, wash dresses, and similar garments. 

(6) Millinery: Study of materials for hats; making, altering, and covering hat 
frames. The planning, making, and trimming of seasonable hats of appropriate 
materials. 

Throughout the course economy and good taste in dress. 



184 PEESENT STANDARDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Cooking {2 units). 

1. Food classified and tested for food principles. 

A study of the effect of heat upon foods alone and in combination; with and without 
water and other liquids; experiments with leavening agents, and their uses shown in 
actual cooking. Bread making. The theory and practice of canning and preserving 
fruits, vegetables, and meats. Planning, cooking, and serving meals. Waiting on 
table. 

2. The cost of food; market prices; the cost of meals. Household accounts. The 
family dietary: The planning, weighing, and cooking of apportioned meals. Diets for 
infants, invalids, and convalescents. 

Sanitation: Selection of site, house planning; heating, lighting, and ventilating; 
water supply; disposal of -waste; furnishing and decorating; cleaning processes, in- 
cluding laundry work. 

Freehand drawing and applied arts {2 units). 

Approximately one-third the time should be given to representative drawing and 
two-thirds to decorative composition, constructive and decorative design, construction 
and applied design. 

(a) Pictorial — Plant study (flowers, sprays of leaves, seeds, pods, etc.); object 
study; landscape — ^roof studies, buildings, etc.; pose drawing; composition. 

(fc) Decorative composition — Plant forms, object study, landscape pose. 

(c) Decorative design — Plant analysis (for the purpose of design; conventionalized 
plant forms; decorative units, borders, surfaces, comers, rosettes, posters, bookcoveis, 
etc.; stencils, wood-block printing; historic ornament; arrangement of straight lines, 
and of straight and curved lines; geometric design; lettering — illuminating; schemes 
for interior decoration. 

{d) Constructive design — Designs for pottery, leather, metal, bookbinding, fur- 
niture, cardboard construction, textiles, etc. 

(e) Crafts — Pottery, leather work, metal work, bookbinding, furniture. (Choice 
of one or more of the above crafts. ) 

(/) Applied design — Design applied to the crafts and to cardboaid, textiles, etc. 

(g) Illustration. 

{h) Talks on history of industry and art, on civic planning, domestic architecture 
and decoration. 

{%) Instrumental drawing to be given as needed to meet the requirements of practi- 
cal designing and construction. 

Note. — Mediums used: Pencil, charcoal, water colors, crayons, brush, and India 
ink, and a combination of the pure mediums. 



APPENDIX C. 

SOME STANDARDIZING AGENCIES. 

American Academy of Medicine. 

American Conference of Pharmaceutical Faculties, 1910. 

American Dental Faculties Association. 

American Federation of Arts. 

American Historical Association. 

American Institute of Homeopathy. . 

American Mathematical Society. 

American Pharmaceutical Association. 

American Philological Association. 

American Society on Engineering Education. 

American Society of Zoologists. 

Association of American Law Schools, 1910-11. 

Association of American Medical Colleges. 

American Medical Association (Council on Medical Education, 1910). 

Association of American Universities. 

Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland. 

Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Southern States, 1911. 

Association of Collegiate Alumnse. 

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910. 

College Entrance Examination Board, 1910. 

Confederation of State Medical Examination Boards. 

Dental Faculties Association of American Universities, 1910. 

Eastern Educational Musical Conference. 

Methodist Episcopal Church Board of Education, 1911 . 

Methodist Episcopal Church South Board of Education, 1911 . 

Modern Language Association. 

National Association of Dental Examiners. 

National Association of State Universities, 1910. 

National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools. 

National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. 

National Dental Association. 

National Education Association (various committees and departments). 

New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools. 

New England College Certificate Board. 

New England Education League. 

New York State Education Department. 

North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 1911. 

Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

State boards of educational examiners. 

State licensing boards. 

Western Drawing and Manual Training ABsociation. 

185 



INDEX. 



Academies, definition, GO-61. 

Accrediting, standards for, 39-40. 

Admission, methods of, 36-38. 

Admission requirements. See Entrance require- 
ments. 

Agencies, standardizing, 185. 

Albion College, admission requirements, 31; re- 
quirements for graduation, 46-47. 

Algebra, requisite for admission (1819), 10. 

American Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
ence, resolutions on qualitative element in stand- 
ards, 53-54. 

American Conference of Pharmaceutical Faculties, 
national syllabus committee, 126. 

American Dental Association, formed, 116. 

American Federation of Arts, organization, 129. 

American Institute of Homeopathy, standard for 
entrance examination, 81. 

American Medical Association, formation and work, 

. 76-77. 

American Pharmaceutical Association, influence of, 
123. 

American Society of Dental Surgeons, formation, 
116. 

Andover Seminary, theological education, 71. 

Angell, J. R., on entrance requirements of the Uni- 
versity of Chicago, 46. 

Arithmetic, requisite for admission (1816), 10. 

Art. See Fine arts. 

Association of American Law Schools, movement 
toward a two-year standard, 103-104. 

Association of American Medical Colleges, require- 
ments for admission, 87-88. 

Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of 
of the Southern States, college standards, 58-59; 
organized, 25; outlines of methods of admission 
presented, 36-38. 

Association of Collegiate Alumnse, definition of 
standard college, 64-65; standards in women's col- 
leges, 25. 

Associations, educational, work for standardization, 
25. 

B. 

Baltimore, early medical school, 75-76. 

Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, foundation, 
115. 

Barnard College, bachelor of music, requirements, 
132. 

Beloit College, admission requirements, 31; distinc- 
tions and marking system, 54; requirements for 

. graduation, 47. 

Biology, minimum requirements, medical schools, 
90. 



Boston Medical Society, organization, 75. 

Botany, definition of requirements. College En- 
trance Examination Board, 161-163; unit course, 
175-176. 

Bowdoin College, admission requirements, 31; dis- 
tinctions and marking system, 54; requirements 
for graduation, 47. 

Brown, E. E., on world movement in standards 7-8. 

Brown University, course of study (1850), 17-18; 
electives, 14, 18. 

Bryant, W. C, on standards at "Williams College 
(1810), 11-12. 

Bryn Mawr College, defender of examination sys- 
tem, 41. 

Bureau of Education. See United States Bureau of 
Education. 

Bush, G. G., on standards in first half of nineteenth 
century, 10. 

Butler, N. M., on transition from secondary school 
to college, 41. 

C. 

California, University of, admission requirements, 
32; art school, 130; distinctions and marking sys- 
tem, 55; requirements for advanced degrees, 138; 
requirements for graduation, 48. 

Carleton College, admission requirements, 31; dis- 
tinctions and marking system, 54; requirements 
for graduation, 47. 

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- 
ing, and uniformity of standards, 27-30; on re- 
quirements for admission by units, 59. 

Catholic University of America, admission require- 
ments, 32; law school, 48, 102, 106-108; theological 
school, 71-73. 

Certificates, 36-38; lowest requlrenaents, institutions 
of Middle West, 52; method of admission, 35-36; 
modifications, 40-46. 

Chemistry, definition of requirements. College En- 
trance Examination Board, 158-161; minimum 
requirement, medical schools, 90; imit course, 
174-175. 

Chicago, University of, entrance requirements; 
44-46; law school, 103, 107; new entrance require- 
ments, 67; requirements for graduation, 48-49; 
theological school, 72-73. 

Clark University, admission requirements, 32; flexi- 
bility of entrance requirements, 66. 

Colgate University, admission requirements, 31, 
requirements for graduation, 47. 

College Association of Peimsylvania. See Associa- 
tion of Colleges and Preparatory Schools in the 
Middle States and Maryland. 

College defined, Carnegie Foundation, 27. 

College entrance diploma, history, 27-28. 

187 



188 



INDEX. 



College Entrance Examination Board, definition 
of a unit, 35-36; definition of requirements, 
143-170; report of committee on standards, 59-60; 
work, 26-27. 

College entrance requirements. See Entrance 
requirements. 

Colleges and high schools, articulation, 66; defini- 
tion of standard, 57-65; departments of education, 
52-53; present standards, 24-69; prevailing meth- 
ods of admission, 36-38; representative, admis- 
sion requirements, 31-34; typical, marking sys- 
tem, 54-57. 

Colleges and universities. Colonial, 8-9. 

Colonial colleges, standards, 8-9; terms of admis- 
sion, 10. 

Columbia University, admission requirements, 32; 
art school, 130, 132-133; defender of examination 
system, 41; distinctions and marking system, 55; 
law school, 101, 102, 107; requirements for ad- 
vanced degrees, 138; requirements for gradua- 
tion, 49; school of engineering, 112; school of 
pharmacy, 125-127. 
See also Barnard College. 

Colwell, N. P., on medical schools, 88-90; on meth- 
ods of investigating medical colleges, 92-95. 

Commercial subjects, unit course, 179-182. 

Commission of Colleges in New England on Admis- 
sion Requirements, work, 24. 

Committee of Ten, and admission requirements, 
25. 

Composition, English. See English language. 

Cornell University, admission requirements, 31-32 
art school, 130; distinctions and marking system 
,54-55; engineering school, admission require 
ments, 112; law school, course for bachelor's de- 
gree, 107; requirements for advanced degrees, 139 
requirements for graduation, 47, 49. 

Council on Medical Education, conferences, 77-81 
report on medical education (1909), 78. 

Courses of study, Brown University, third quarter 
of nineteenth century, 17-18; dental schools, 
119-120; Harvard College, early, 8-9; medical 
schools, objections to a rigid standard, 95; pre- 
scribed by Education Board of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church (North), 25-26; schools of en- 
gineering, 112-114; schools of pharmacy, 126; 
schools of theology, 73-75; unit, definitions, 
171-184; Williams College, 10, 14-17; Yale College, 
first half of nineteenth century, 12-14. 

Credits. See Marking system. 

Curriculum. See Courses of study. 



Danforth, Samuel, and medical education, 75. 

Dartmouth College, early medical instruction, 75. 

Definitions, standard college, 57-65. 

Degrees, advanced, universities, 138-142; artschools 
133; changed significance of A. B., at Harvard, 
21-22; dental schools, 120-121; law courses, 107- 
108; medical, 96-97; schools of engineering, 112- 
114; schools of pharmacy, 126-127; standard col- 
lege, 64; theological schools, 72. 
See also Distinctions; Graduation. 

Dental schools, standards, 115-121. 

Diplomas, academic and college entrance, modifi- 
cations of requirements, 29-30; college entrance, 
history, 27-29; lowest requirements, institutions 
in Middle West, 52. 



Distinctions, typical colleges and universities, 
54-57. 

Drawing, definition of requirements, College En- 
trance Examination Board, 168. 

Dunster, President, and Harvard College, 8-9. 

Durfee, Calvin, option for Greek in Williams Col- 
lege, 10. 

E. 

Economics. See Commercial subjects. . 

Education, departments pr schools, in liberal arts 
colleges, 52-53. 

Eijkman, Dr., and world standard of medicine, 84. 

Elective system, and New England Association of 
Colleges, 21; and schools of applied science, 114; 
Brown University, 14, 17; Harvard College, 12, 
13-14; possible, college entrance requirements, 29; 
Yale College, 18. 

Eliot, C. W., and university ideals, 135-136; on 
elective system, terms of admission, etc., 19-20; 
on standards of admission at Harvard, 22. 

Engineering schools, standards, 109-114. 

English language, common requirements, 24; defi- 
nition of requirements. College Entrance Exami- 
nation Board, 143-146. 

Entrance examinations, Columbia University, 
committee on undergraduate admission, 41 
standards for medical schools, 81-88. 

Entrance requirements, adopted by Iowa State 
Board of Education, 39-40; colonial colleges, 10; 
Committee of Ten, 25; definition, College Entrance 
Examination Board, 143-170; dental schools, 
118-119; graduate work and advanced degrees, 
universities, 138-142; Harvard University, 8-9, 
19-22, 42-44; increase in, 30; law schools, 101-104; 
modifications of examining and certificate sys- 
tems, 40-46; preparatory (precollegiate) courses, 
25-26; representative universities and colleges, 
31-34, 36-38; schools of engineering, 111-112; 
schools of pharmacy, 125; summary, 65-69; theo- 
logical schools, 71-72; uniformity of, 24-25, 34-35; 
University of Chicago, 44-46. 
See also Courses of study; Elective system. 

Examinations, defenders, 68. 

ExamiDations for admission, 36-38; Bryn Mawr 
College, 41; Columbia University, 41; Harvard 
University, 41; Lafayette College, 41; modifica- 
tions, 40-46; Princeton University, 41 ; Yale Uni- 
versity, 41. 

Everett, President, and standards of Harvard, 8. 



Fine arts, schools, standards, 12&-133. 

Flexner, Abraham, report on medical education. 



French language, definition of requirements. Col- 
lege Entrance Examination Board, 148-150. 



G. 



General Education Board, and uniformity of 
standards, 27. 

Geography, definition of requirements. College En- 
trance Examination Board, 163-166; requisite for 
admission (1816), 10. 

German language, definition of requirements. Col- 
lege Entrance Examination Board, 150-162, 



INDEX. 



189 



Graduation, art schools, 132-133; dental schools, 120; 
law schools, 106-107; representative colleges and 
universities, 46-52, 68; schools of engmeering, 
requirements, 112-114; schools of pharmacy, 12&- 
126; theological schools, 72-73. 

Grammar, English. See English language. 

Greek language, definition of requirements, College 
Entrance Examination Board, 148; requirement 
for admission to college, 10, 22. 

Grmnell College, admission requirements, 31; dis- 
tinctions and marking system, 54; requirements 
for graduation, 47. 

Group system, discussed, 23. 



Harvard University, art school, 131; admission re- 
quirements, 8-10, 12, 32-33, 42-44; changed sig- 
nificance of A. B. degree, 21-22; common require- 
ments in English, 24; defender of examination 
system, 41; dental school, 115, 119-121; distinctions 
and marking system, 65; early medical depart- 
ment, 75; early professorship of law, 99-100; elec- 
tive system , 12-14, 21 ; first instruction in theology , 
70; graduate school of applied science, require- 
ments for graduation and degrees, 113; history of 
entrance requirements discussed, 19-22; law 
school, 101, 107-108; requirements for advanced 
degrees, 139; requirements for graduation, 49; the- 
ological school, 71-72. 

High School Teachers' Association of New York 
City, and articulation of high school and college, 
66-67. 

High schools and colleges, articulation, 66-67. 

Hill, A. S., and uniformity of entrance require- 
ments, 24. 

History, definition of requirements, College En- 
trance Examination Board, 146; unit course, 173- 
174. 

Hopkins, Albert, and scientific expeditions, 11. 

Hopkins, Mark, alumni address (1843), 11. 

Hurlbut, Dean, on standards of admission, 59. 



Illinois, University of, admission requirements, 33; 
distinctions and marking system, 55; require- 
ments for advanced degrees, 139; requirements for 
graduation, 49; school of pharmacy, admission 
requirements, 125. 

Indiana University, admission requirements, 33; 
distinctions and marking system, 56; law school, 
100; report of committee on combined courses in 
academic and professional work, 52-53; require- 
ments for advanced degrees, 139; requirements for 
graduation, 49-50. 

Instructors, qualifications, 68-69. 

Iowa, school laws, definition of college, 61-62. 

Iowa, State University of, admission requirements, 
33; dental school, 119; combined courses, 119; law 
school, 101; requirements for advanced degrees, 
139; requirements for graduation, 50; school of 
pharmacy, 125. 

Iowa State Board of Education, scheme for accred- 
iting and admission requirements, 39-40. 

J. 

Johns Hopkins University, admission require- 
ments, 33; distinctions and marking system, 56; 
requirements for graduation, 50. 



Kansas, University of, admission requirements, 33; 
requirements for advanced degrees, 139; require- 
ments for graduation, 50; school of pharmacy, 125, 
127. 

King's College, enchoate medical department, 75. 
See also Columbia University. 



College, admission requirements, 31-32; 
defender of examination system, 41; distinctions 
and marking system, 54; requirements for gradu- 
ation, 47. 

Latin language, definition of requirements. College 
Entrance Examination Board, 146-148; speaking 
falls into desuetude, 10. 

Law schools, methods of instruction, 107; standards, 
99-108, 100-110. 

Lawrence Scientific School, admission require- 
ments, 111-112. 

Leland Stanford Junior University, admission 
requirements, 33; requirements for advanced 
degrees, 140; requirements for graduation, 50. 

Liberal arts colleges, present standards, 24-69. 

Licensing boards, law. State, 104-105; medical. State, 
90-91. 

Literature, English. See English language. 

M. 

McCormick Theological School, admission require- 
ments, 71, 73. 

McKenzie, W. D., objections to standardization of 
theological education, 74. 

Manual training, unit course, 182-184. 

Marking system, typical colleges and universities, 
54-57. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, admission 
requirements, 112; requirements for graduation 
and degrees, 112; standards, 110-111. 

Mathematics, definition of requirements. College 
Entrance Examination Board, 153-155; requisites 
for admission (1803), 10; unit course, 171-173. 

Medical College of Georgia, reform movement, 76. 

Medical colleges, definition, 86; objection to re- 
quired collegiate preparation, 95-96; requiring an 
optional fifth year, 92; requiring at least one year 
of collegiate preparation, 92. 

Medical education, American standards, 81-84,88. 

Medical schools, hours in fundamental branches, 
89-90; requiring two years of college education, 
etc., 91-92; standards, 75-98. 

Methodist Episcopal Church (North), as a standard- 
izing agency, 25-26. 

Methods of instruction, dental schools, 119-120. 

Michigan, University of, admission requirements, 
33; dental school, 119, 121; engineering school, 
112; law school, 101-102, 106; requirements for 
advanced degrees, 140; requirements for gradua- 
tion, 50; school of pharmacy, 125-126. 

Minnesota, University of, admission requirements, 
33; distinctions amd marking system, 56; re- 
quirements for advanced degrees, 140; require- 
ments for graduation, 51. 

Missouri, University of, admission requirements, 
33; distinctions and marking system, 56; require- 
ments for advanced degrees. 140; requirements 
for graduation, 51. 



190 



Morgan, John, and pharmacy in the United 
122. 

Morrill Act (1862), and industrial education, 111. 

Movement for standards, 7. See also World stand- 
ards. 

Music, definition of requirements, College Entrance 
Examination Board, 169-170. 

Music schools, standards, 129-133. 

N. 

National Academy of Design, founded, 129. 

National Association of Dental Examiners, and 
standards of dentistry, 117. 

National Association of Dental Faculties, organ- 
ized, 116-117. 

National Association of State Universities, defini- 
tion of college, 63; report of committee on stand- 
ards, 136-138. 

National Conference Committee on Standards of 
Colleges and Secondary Schools, and definitions 
of entrance requirements, 35. 

National Dental Association, and standards of 
dentistry, 117-119. 

National Education Association, Committee of Ten, 
and admission requirements to college, 25. 

Nebraska, University of, admission requirements, 
34; distinctions and marking system, 56; require- 
ments for advanced degrees, 140; requirements 
for graduation, 51; school of pharmacy, 125-120. 

New England Association of Colleges, and elective 
studies, 21. 

New England Association of Colleges and Prepara- 
tory Schools, organized, 25. 

New England Certificate Board for the Approval of 
Schools, 24; work, 27. 

New England College Entrance Certificate Board, 
organized, 27. 

New York, University of the State of. Sec Uni- 
versity of the State of New York. 

New York (State), admission requirements for law 
schools, 102; dental requirements, 120-121. 

New York State Education Department, standards 
of law schools, 105. 

New York University, law school, 100. 

Nineteenth century, standards in first half, 10-14; 
standards in fourth quarter, 18-23; standards in 
third quarter, 14-18. 

North Central Association of Colleges and Second- 
ary Schools, and accrediting of colleges, 6(J; 
admission by certificate, 35-36; commission on 
accredited schools and colleges, definitions of 
unit courses, 171-184; definition of a college, 57-58; 
organization, 25. 

O. 

Ohio, school laws, definition of college, 61. 
P. 

Peale, C. W., and art education, 129. 

Pedagogy, departments or schools, in liberal-arts 
colleges, 52-53. 

Peimsylvania, school laws and decisions, definition 
of colleges and academies, 60. 

Pennsylvania, University of, admission require- 
ments, 34; dental school, 119, 120; distinctions and 
marking system, 56; medical school, 76-77; re- 
quirements for advanced degrees, 140; require- 
ments for graduation, 51; school of pharmacy, 
standards, 122. 



Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, founded, 129. 

Pharmaceutical schools, registration, 124-125; stand- 
ards, 122-128. 

Pharmacopoeia, effects, 123-124. 

Philadelphia, first faculties of medicine, 75. 

Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, organized, 122- 
123. 

Physics, defiiiition of requirements. College En- 
trance Examination Board, 15.5-158; minimum re- 
quirement, medical schools, 90; imit course, 174. 

Pomona College, requirements for graduation, 47. 

Porter, Noah, on elective studies, 22. 

Pretheologlcal course, commission on, 73-75. 

Princeton University, admission requirements, 34; 
art school, 131; distinctions and marking system, 
56-57; requirements for advanced degrees, 140; 
requirements for graduation, 51; theological 
school, 71-72. 

Professors, qualifications, 68-69. 

Q. 

Qualitative elements, in standards, distinctions, 
and grades, 53-54. 



Rand, Isaac, and medical education, 75. 

Reading. See Enghsh language. 

Religious Education Association, commission on 
pretheological course, 73-75. 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, admission re- 
quirements, 112; standards, 109-110. 

Rust, Thomas, and medical education, 75. 

Rutgers College, distinctions and marking system, 
54-55; requirements for graduation, 47. 



San Francisco Institute of Art, 130. 

School laws, Iowa, definition of college, 61-62; Ohio, 
definition of college, 61 ; Pennsylvania, definition 
of colleges and academies, 60. 

Sciences, first half of nineteenth centm-y, 10-11. 

Scientific schools. Sec Engineering schools. 

Secondary schools, cooperation with University of 
Chicago, 44. 

Secondary schools and colleges, standards (Eliot), 
19-20. 

Sheffield Scientific School, requirements for gradua- 
tion and degrees, 112; standards, 110. 

Spanish language, definition of requirements. Col- 
lege Entrance Examination Board, 152-153. 

Standardizing agencies, 185. 

Standards, qualitative element, .53-54. 

State school officers, definition of standard college or 
university, 63-64. 

State University of Iowa, admission requirements, 
33; dental school, 119; distinctions and marking 
sj'Stems, 56; requirements for graduation, 50; 
school of pharmacy, 125. 



Teachers, qualifications, 68-69. 

Theological schools, requirement for admission, 
71-72; requirements for graduation and degrees, 
72-73; standards, 70-75. 

Theology, pretheologlcal course, recommendations 
of commission, 73-74. 

Thomdike, E. L., on qualitative element in stand- 
ards, 53-54. 



INDEX. 



191 



Tulane University, admission requirements, 32; 
distinctions and marking system, 55; require- 
ments for graduation, 48. 

U. 

Uniformity and units of admission, 34^36. 

Union Theological Sciiool, admission requirements, 
71-72. 

United States Bureau of Education, and qualita- 
tive element in standards, 53; definition of stan- 
dard colleges, 63. 

Units, definition, 35, 171-181; standard, secondary 
schools, 66; uniformity, 34-36. 

Universities, art courses, 129-130; definition, 134-135, 
142; differentiation from the college, 23; marking 
system, 54-57; prevaOing methods of admission, 
36-38; representative, admission requirements, 
31-34; standards, 134r-142; State, accrediting sys- 
tem, 27. 

University Dental Faculties Association, and stan- 
dards of dentistry, 121. 

University of California, admission requirements, 
32; art school, 130; distinctions and marking sys- 
tem, 55; requirements for advanced degrees, 138; 
requirements for graduation, 48. 

University of Chicago, entrance requirements, 44- 
46; law school, 103, 107; new entrance require- 
ments, 67; requirements for graduation, 48-49; 
theological school, 71, 73. 

University of Illinois, distinctions and marking 
system, 55; requirements for advanced degrees, 
139; requirements for graduation, 49; requirements 
for graduation and degrees, 113; school of phar- 
macy, 125. 

University of Indiana, distinctions and marking 
system, 56; requirements for advanced degrees, 
139. 

University of Iowa, law school, 101. 

University of Kansas, requirements for advanced 
degrees, 139-140; school of pharmacy, 125, 127. 

University of Michigan, admission requirements, 
33; dental school, 119, 121; law school, 101-102; 
school of pharmacy, 125-126; requirements for 
advanced degrees, 140; requirements for gradua^ 
tion, 50; school of engineering, 112. 

University of Minnesota, admission requirements, 
33; distinctions and marking system, 56; require- 
ments for advanced degrees, 140; requirements for 
graduation, 51. 

University of Missoiu-i, admission requirements, 33; 
distinctions and marking system, 56; require- 
ments for advanced degrees, 140; requirements for 
graduation, 51. 

University of Nebraska, admission requirements, 
34; distinctions and marking system, 56; school of 
pharmacy, 125-126; requirements for advanced 
degrees, 140; requirements for graduation, 51. 

University of Peimsylvania, admission require- 
ments, 34; dental school, 119, 120; distinctions and 
marking system, 56; medical school, 76-77; re- 
quirements for advanced degrees, 140; require- 
ments for graduation, 51; school of pharmacy, 
standards, 122. 



University of the State of New York, and admis- 
sion to dental schools, 119; and dental require- 
ments, 119, 121; pharmacy schools, admission re- 
quirements, 125; registration of pharmacy schools, 
124-125. 

University of Virginia, admission requirements, 34; 
distinctions and marking system, 57; law school, 
100; requirements for advanced degrees, 140; re- 
quirements for graduation, 51-52. 

University of Wisconsin, admission requirements, 
34; distinctions and marking system, 57; law 
school, 101-102; requirements for advanced de- 
grees, 140; requirements for graduation, 52; school 
of pharmacy, 127. 

V. 

Vanderbilt University, admission requirements, 32; 
requirements for graduation, 48; theological 
school, 71, 73. 

Virginia, University of, admission requirements, 
34: distinctions and marking system, 57: law 
school, 100; requirements for advanced 
140; requirements for graduation, 51-52. 



W. 



Wahash College, admission lequirements, 32; re- 
quirements for graduation, 48. 

Walker, F. A., and technical education. 111. 

Warren, .John, scheme for medical school, 75. 

Welch, Prof., on medical standards, 95. 

Wesleyan College, common requirements in En- 
glish, 24. 

West, A. F., on A. B. degree at Harvard, 21-22. 

Williams College, admission requirements, 14-15, 
32; course of instruction (1875), 16-17; course of 
instruction (1850-51), 15-16; courses of study, first 
half of nineteenth century, 10-11; distinctions and 
marking system, 55; early requirements for ad- 
mission, 10; requirements for graduation, 48. 

Winchester, Prof., and uniformity of entrance re- 
quirements, 24. 

Wisconsin, University of, admission requirements, 
34; distinctions and marking system, 57; law 
school, 101-102; requirements for advanced de- 
grees, 140; requirements for graduation, 52; school 
of pharmacy, 127. 

World standards and E. E. Brown, 7-8. 



Yale University, admission requirements, 12-13, 34; 
art school, 130, 132; defender of examination sys- 
tem, 41; distinctions and marking sj'stem, 57; 
electivestudies,18; law school, 100, 102, 105, 107-108; 
medical school, 75-76; requirements for advanced 
degrees, 141-142; requirements for graduation, 52; 
theological school, 70-72. 
See also Sheffield Scientific School. 



Zoology, definition of reciuirements. College En- 
trance Examination Board, 166-167; unit course, 
176-179. 



o 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

Continued from p. 2 of cover. 
1912. 

No. 1.^ Course of study for rmral school teachers. Fred Mutchler and "W. J. Craig. 

No. 2. Mathematics at West Point and Annapolis. 

No. 3. Report cf committee on im^iform records and reports. 

No. 4. Jlathematics in technical secondary schools. 

No. 5. A study of expenses of city school systems. Harlan Updegraff. 

No. ti. Agricultiu'al education in secondary schools. 

No. 7. Educational status of nursing. M. Adelaide Nutting. 

No. 8. Peace day. Fannie F. Andre-^s, 

No. 9. Country schools for city boys, William Stan' Myers. 

No. 10. Bibliography of education in agriculture and home economics. 

No. 11. CmTent educational topics, No. I. 

No. 12. Dutch schools of New Netherland and colonial Nctf York. W. H. Kilpatrick. 

No. 13. Influences tending to improve the work of the teacher of mathematics. 

No. 14. Report of the American commission ^.rs on the teaching of mathematics. 

No. 15. Cm-rent educational topics, No. II. 

No. 16. Tlie reoi^anized school playgi'ound. Eenry S. Curtis. 

No. 17. The Montessori system of education. Anna Tolman Smith. 

No. 18. Teaching language through agriculture and domestic science. M. A. Leiper. 

No. 19. Professional distribution of college and university graduates. B. B. Burritt. 

No. 20. Readjustmert cf arural high school toneedsof the community. H. A. Brown. 

No. 21. Urban and rural common-school statistics. H. Updegraff and W. R. Hood. 

No. 22. Public and private high schools. 

No. 23. Special collections in libraries. W. Dawson Johnston and IsadoreG. Mudge. 

No. 24. Cun-ent educational topics, No. III. 

No. 25. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, 1912. 

No. 2G. Bibliogi-aphy of child study for the years 1910-1911. 

No. 27. History of public-school education in Arkansas. Stephen B. Weeks. 

No. 28. Cultivating echoolgrounds in Wake County, North Carolina. Zebulon Judd. 

No. 29. Bibliography of the teaching of mathematicB, 1900-1912. 

No. 30. Latin^American universities and special schools. Edgar Ewing Brandon. 

No. 31. Educational directory, 1912. ; 

No. 32. Bibliography ofexceptional children and their education. A.MacDonald. 

No. 33. Statistics of State universities, etc., 1912. 

1913. 

No. 1. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1913. 

No. 2. Training courses for rural teachers. A. C. Monahan and R. H. Wright. 

No. 3. The teaching of modem languages in the United States. C. H. Handschin. 



